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HARPER'S 
BOATING BOOK 

FOR BOYS 

A GUIDE TO MOTOR BOATING, SAILING 
CANOEING AND ROWING 



CONSULTING EDITOR 

CHARLES Q. DAVIS 

EDITORIAL STAFF OF "MOTOR BOAT" 



WITH MANY ORIGINAL 
ILLUSTRATIONS 




HARPER ^BROTHERS PUBLISHERS 

NEW YORK AND LONDON 
MCMXI I 



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Harper's Practical Books for Boys 

A SERIES OF NEW HANDY-BOOKS FOR BOYS 



HARPER'S CAMPING AND SCOUTING 

An Outdoor Book for American Boys. Consult- 
ing Editors, George Bird Grinnell, Editor ,: Forest 
and Stream "; Dr. Eugene L. Swan, Director Pine 
Island Camp, etc. 

HARPER'S ELECTRICITY BOOK FOR BOYS 

Written and Illustrated by Joseph H. Adams. With 
a General Chapter by Joseph B. Baker, and a 
Dictionary ol Electrical Terms. 

HARPER'S HOW TO UNDERSTAND ELEC- 
TRICAL WORK 

By William H. Onken, Jr., and Joseph B. Baker. 

HARPER'S OUTDOOR BOOK FOR BOYS 

By Joseph H. Adams and others 

HARPER'S INDOOR BOOK FOR BOYS 

By Joseph H. Adams and others. 

HARPER'S MACHINERY BOOK FOR BOYS 

By Joseph H. Adams. 

HARPER'S HANDY BOOK FOR GIRLS 

Edited by Anna Parmly Paret. 

THE STORY OF GREAT INVENTIONS 

By Elmer Ellsworth Burns. 

Each volume fully illustrated from photographs, draivings % 

and diagrams. Uniform in size and appearance. 

Crown Svo, Cloth, $1.75 each\except ''The Story 

of Great Inventions" wfcich is $1.25. 



HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK 



COPYRIGHT. 1912. BY HARPER & BROTHERS 



PRINTfD IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
PUBLISHED MAY 111? 



CI.A314209 



V* 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

INTRODUCTION . . . . ix 



Part I 
FIRST AID TO BOATING 



CHAPTER I— SWIMMING COMES FIRST 3 

The Friendly Water The Breast Stroke 

Confidence Floating — Diving 

Under Water The Side Stroke 

On the Surface Fancy Swimming 

Part II 
HOW TO MAKE PLAY BOATS 

CHAPTER II.— MODEL YACHTS 19 

By Charles Ledyard Norton 
The Plan Ballast and Keel 

Size of the Boat Spars and Rigging 

Accurate Drawing Sails 

The Hull Deck Fittings 

Cutting away the Wood Seamanship 

Finishing the Hull A Self-acting Helm 

Some Rules for Navigation 

CHAPTER III.— SUGGESTIONS FOR SLOOP MODELING. . 37 

By H. Percy Ashton 
The Fin-keel Paint and Varnish 

Deck and Spars Flags 

iii 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

CHAPTER IV.— HOW TO MAKE A TOY STEAMBOAT . . 42 

By Victor Smedley 
The Motor-power The Hull 

The Cabin 

CHAPTER V.— A BOAT WITH A SCREW PROPELLER ... 48 

By F. Chasemore 

Making the Machinery The Propeller 

Power 

CHAPTER VI.— PADDLE-WHEELS FOR A SMALL BOAT . . 54 

By C. F. Post 

Applicable to Any Boat Assembling the Parts 

Hubs and Spokes Cost 

Paddles Hand-power 

Another Way to Make Wheels 



Part III 

HOW TO MAKE REAL BOATS 
By Joseph H. Adams 
CHAPTER VII— BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD .... 65 
Punt and Scow A Center-board Sharpy 

A Sharpy A Proa 

A Rowing Dory of the Old Type A Swallow 
A Sailing Sharpy A Power-boat 

CHAPTER VIII.— CATAMARANS 93 

A Rowing Catamaran A Sailing Catamaran 

A Side-wheel Catamaran 

CHAPTER IX.— HOUSE-BOATS AND RAFTS 103 

A House-punt A House-raft 

A Float 
iv 



CONTENTS 



Part IV 

SAIL-BOATS AND SAILING 

CHAPTER X— BUYING A SAIL-BOAT 125 

Some General Considerations A Thorough Trial 
Is the Boat Sound? Differing Models 

Overhauling the Bottom The Cat-Boat Rig 

Mast, Sails, and Rigging Keel and Centerboard 

Racing Types 



CHAPTER XL— FIRST LESSONS WITH TILLER AND SHEET . 136 
By Dudley D. F. Parker 

Some Basic Principles Handling Tiller and Sheet 

The Tiller Together 

Tending Sheet Luffing About 

Jibing General Hints 

Making Dock 



CHAPTER XIL— SECOND LESSONS, WITH DIAGRAMS . . 153 

By Lieut. Worth G. Ross, U. S. R. M. 

The Helm Care of the Sheets 

Close-hauled Before the Wind 

Tacking Wearing 

Reefing Getting under Way 

Anchoring Some Practical Advice 



CHAPTER XIIL— FITTING OUT A BOAT 161 

By W. J. Henderson 
The Spring Housecleaning Setting Up the Rigging 

Work on the Mast Bending on the Mainsail 

Deck and Hull 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

CHAPTER XIV.— SAILS FOR OPEN BOATS 169 

By Lieut. Worth G. Ross, U. S. R. M. 

Sprit-sail Rig Schooner Rig 

Cat Rig Sharpies 

Balance Lug ] Leg-of-mutton Rig 

Sloop Rig The Sliding-gunter 

Mizzen Rig Lateen-sails 

CHAPTER XV.— RIGS AND MAKESHIFTS OF THE SMALL 

BOAT 177 

By Dudley D. F. Parker 

To Make the Sail Set Flat The Fore-and-aft Sail 

A Shorter Mast Rigging a Jib 

A Yard Blocks 

Centerboard and Keel 

CHAPTER XVI.— A RACING CAT-BOAT AND ITS CARE . . 190 

Overhauling the Boat Jibing Around the Mark 

Cleansing the Bottom Running to It 

Training the Crew at the Start Righting a Capsized Boat 

Distribution of Weight Winter Quarters 

CHAPTER XVII.— MARLIN-SPIKE SEAMANSHIP 204 

Splices Bends 

Knots Hitches 

Part V 

MOTOR-BOATS AND MOTOR-BOATING 

By Charles G. Davis 
CHAPTER XVIII.— SIMPLE TYPES OF BOATS FOR MOTORS. 219 
Punt Dory 

Skiff Round-bottomed Boats 

Skipjack Resistance of the Water 

CHAPTER XIX.— GASOLENE ENGINES 229 

General Description The Jump-spark Engine 

The Make-and-break System The Coil 

Carbureter and Other Parts 
vi 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

CHAPTER XX.— HOW THE ENGINE WORKS 235 

Transmission of Power Accessories • 

Three Vital Points Two-cycle and Four-cycle Engines 

Ignition 

CHAPTER XXI.— INSTALLING THE ENGINE 243 

Engine-bed Shaft Couplings 

Stuffing-box and Shaft-log Propeller 

Shaft-hanger Exhaust-piping 

Lining Up the Shaft Water-intake 

CHAPTER XXII.— GASOLENE-TANKS AND CARBURETERS. 257 
Fitting In the Tank The Carbureter 

Feed-pipes How to Start the Motor 

CHAPTER XXIII.— IGNITION AND OILING 265 

Jump-spark Motors Lubrication or Oiling 

Cells and Wires Grease-cups 

Reverse Gear 

CHAPTER XXIV.— RUNNING THE ENGINE 275 

Filling the Gasolene-tank In Case of Difficulty 

How to Tell Gasolene Tests of the Ignition System 

Filling the Grease-cups Practical Hints 

To Start the Engine How to Wire Up Dry Batteries 

CHAPTER XXV.— THE HYDROPLANE 287 

The Simplest Model the Fastest Placing the Engine 
Building a Hydroplane The Rudder 

CHAPTER XXVI.— SIGN-BOARDS AND LAMP-POSTS OF THE 

WATER 294 

The Arrangement of Buoys Nun, Can, Spar, and Other Buoys 

Light-ships and Beacons 

CHAPTER XXVII.--RULES OF THE ROAD 300 

Two Boats Meeting End On Two Boats Crossing 

Two Boats Passing A Good Lookout 

vii 



CONTENTS 



Part VI 

CANOES AND CANOEING 

CHAPTER XXVIIL— HOW TO BUILD A CANVAS CANOE . 307 
By H. Percy Ashley 

Keel and Mid-section Deck-beams, etc. 

Sheer-planks The Canvas 

Masts and Sails 

CHAPTER XXIX.— HOW TO USE A CANOE 313 

By Eugene L. Swan, M.D. 

Canoes and Their Care Equipment 

Repairing a Canoe Loading 

How to Paddle Rough Water 

Part VII 
ROWING 

By Walter B. Peet (with the exception of chapter xxxiii) 

CHAPTER XXX.— A BOY'S BOAT CLUB 325 

The Boat-house The Boat 

CHAPTER XXXI.— HOW TO TRAIN A BOY'S BOAT CLUB . 331 
Organization Training 

CHAPTER XXXII.— HOW TO ROW THE STROKE .... 336 
The Stroke . Sliding Seats 

CHAPTER XXXIII.— THE HARVARD- YALE RACE, 1852-1885 . 341 
By James Wellman 

CHAPTER XXXIV.— THE HARVARD-YALE RACE, 1885-1912 . 370 

CHAPTER XXXV.— INTERCOLLEGIATE ROWING AT POUGH- 

KEEPSIE 380 

CHAPTER XXXVI.— AMERICAN AMATEUR ROWING ... 386 

APPENDIX.— DICTIONARY OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRI- 
CAL TERMS 391 



INTRODUCTION 

NATURE made it inevitable that Americans and Cana- 
dians should be water-loving peoples. To say nothing 
of the descent of the earlier newcomers from maritime 
nations, the vast stretches of American coast-line with the 
many sheltered harbors, and the innumerable lakes and 
rivers of the continent, made it natural that the canoes of 
the Indians should be followed by a multiplication of im- 
proving boat-types down to the incredibly swift racing 
motor-boat of to-day. The story is illustrated in the waters 
about New York, both in the variety of craft in the neigh- 
borhood of the Hudson's mouth, and in the change which 
this great Indian water-route has witnessed from paddle to 
gasolene, from stately processions of birch-bark canoes to 
tip-tilted hydro-planes rushing over racing courses at the 
rate of thirty-five miles or more an hour. 

Now, since this is a book of the present and future, not 
of the past, the modern motor-boat naturally has a promin- 
ent place. But the motor-boat does not represent the first 
stage of boating. The first step is to learn to be at home 
in the water as well as on it. Learn to swim. 

In accordance with the plan of Harper's Practical Books, 
which is to explain how to do things one's self, the subject 
of boating is introduced by instructions how to make model 

ix 



INTRODUCTION 



boats and other craft, an amusement which will also convey 
very valuable knowledge. 

Next comes the making of boats for actual use. All this 
will lead to an understanding of types and actual con- 
struction, which will always prove of value. 

From boat-building the reader advances to boat-sailing, 
an art which involves manifold practical considerations: 
the choice of a boat, its outfit and care, the management of 
helm, sheet, and sails, and a study of different types and 
models. These helpful and comprehensive chapters on sail- 
ing and sail-boats will afford useful hints even to Corinthians 
who pride themselves on their experience. 

In the important part of the book devoted to motor- 
boats and their outfit and management the aim has been to 
afford a working A B C of motor-boating. It is a subject 
which has suffered in much of its literature from the two 
extremes of mere superficial description on the one hand, 
and purely technical treatment on the other. The aim of 
the writer, an expert of the widest experience, has been to 
make clear every step and every difficulty which will be 
met with in actual practice. The engine, its installation, 
and the many matters in connection with mechanism, car- 
bureters, batteries, wiring, gasolene, ignition, and the un- 
expected questions which arise in running are taken up care- 
fully and thoroughly, and the result is a vade mecum for 
owners of motor-boats which will be invaluable, even 
though these owners have attained man's estate, and motor- 
boating has become a matter of actual usefulness, not of 
amusement. 

Canoeing obviously requires less written explanation, 

ft 



INTRODUCTION 



and, therefore, the part devoted to this subject is limited 
to a little practical advice, in addition to instructions in 
building a simple canoe. 

In the part devoted to rowing a former Varsity oarsman 
explains how to row and how to organize a boat club and 
build a house. The closing chapters have a peculiar in- 
terest. They afford a complete history of our oldest college 
race — that between Harvard and Yale — which shows the 
evolution of rowing methods; and there is also an account 
of the Poughkeepsie race, and a glance at amateur rowing 
elsewhere. 

A dictionary of technical terms has been added with 
particular reference to motor-boating. 

The keynote of Harper's Practical Books is usefulness. 
It would have been possible to fill many chapters with 
descriptions of boating oddities and toys; but the remark- 
able appreciation which the public has shown of a series 
of books which aim straight at the mark indicates that 
Harper s Boating Book will afford a measure of usefulness 
which has not been provided in other books on the subject, 

It seems proper to call attention to the thorough illus- 
tration of the subjects treated, with diagrams, plans, and 
pictures, and particularly to the careful drawings which 
Mr. Davis himself has made to accompany his explanations 
of the equipment and management of the motor-boat. 



Part I 
FIRST AID TO BOATING 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Chapter I 

SWIMMING COMES FIRST 

I EARN to be at home in the water before you go on 
■j the water. That knowledge should precede the use 
of boats. It is a knowledge to be fully gained only by 
actual experience under proper supervision, whether in 
swimming - tanks which are to be found in so many 
schools, colleges, clubs, Y. M. C. A. buildings, and else- 
where, or in public baths, or better, out-of-doors. In sum- 
mer camps for boys and girls swimming is one of the very 
first features of the programme. Naturally it must be 
learned by practice, but here are some simple suggestions 
from experts which will be found to be immensely helpful. 

The Friendly Water 

The very first thing needful in learning how to swim is 
to realize that water is a friendly vehicle. It will carry us 
along, floating idly as a cloud in a summer sky or gently 
rocking as in a hammock, if only we will allow it to do so 

3 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



and do not hurt ourselves by struggling and fighting 
with it. We must have confidence in the water, trust it, 
approach it in a friendly spirit. That spirit of trust and 
friendliness can be obtained only by practical experience. 
How? 

Choose the edge of a bay or river — salt water preferred, 
for it floats one more easily — where there is little tide and 
you can go along breast-deep for many yards, with no 
fear of straggling off into depth and danger. 

Throw yourself into the water and try to stay down. Dig 
your fingers and toes into the sandy bottom and notice how 
the water is always trying to lift you to the top. Play in 
the water. It is beautiful. Open your eyes and look 
about. You are in a realm of magic. The sun, pouring 
its golden rays through the water, is revealing a new world 
full of strange and glorious colors. It is easy to duck your 
head under the surface of a bath-tub or wash-basin, is it 
not? It is equally easy to plunge headlong into a clear 
stream when you know you can stand up on your feet and 
breathe clear of the water at will, just as you can in a bath- 
tub. 

Play in the water. Plunge under and plash about in it, 
again and again. Get used to living in the new wet world. 
After a while, as you plunge along beneath the surface, try 
the breast stroke — that is, simply pull yourself ahead by 
waving your hands and arms backward. You'll enjoy the 
fun. Keep trying it, over and over. After a while you 
will find that your head rises above the surface almost with- 
out any effort on your part. When that time comes — lo! 
you have actually learned to swim. 



SWIMMING COMES FIRST 



Confidence 

The natural tendency of the human body is to float, and 
if you let it alone it will do so. Lie down gently in the water 
on your back. Throw out your chest, and let your arms 
lie flat against your sides. Let your head be all immersed 
except your nose and mouth. You will find that your feet 
will sink very slowly, until your body assumes a nearly per- 
pendicular position; and then, if you keep your head and 
shoulders thrown back and your chest thrown out, your 
body will, nine times out of ten, remain floating in that 
position. Now raise your arms above your head and you 
will instantly sink. If you happen to be one of those happy 
mortals whose feet do not sink, you can float by the hour. 
If your feet show a tendency to sink, the gentlest kind of 
paddle with them will keep them afloat. Your head will 
not sink as long as your chest is thrown out. The reason 
why I mentioned raising your arms over your head is this: 
half the young beginners I have ever seen are constantly 
going under water because they try to stay too far above 
the surface. Be content with having your head out when 
you swim on your breast; don't try to get your shoulders 
out too. The more of your body you keep under water 
the greater will be your tendency to float. If you go under 
water altogether and keep still, you will come to the sur- 
face in spite of yourself. 

One of the best places in the world to learn to swim is a 
shallow and rapid stream. The clear water, with the bottom 
plainly visible, within easy reach of the hand, gives the 
young swimmer confidence, while the current bears him along. 

5 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Go into such a stream with a friend to hold up your chin. 
Lie down and strike out. You will sink at first, but you 
must not mind that. In the shallow water no harm can 
come to you. Let your friend tow you down-stream by 
the chin. It will not be long before you have confidence 
enough not to care whether he holds you or not. The vic- 
tory is pretty nearly won then. Before long you will find 
the current carrying you a yard or two before you sink. 
Soon it will be five or six yards. Then you will suddenly 
awake to a consciousness that you are swimming. After 
that you will not care whether you sink or not. When you 
have reached that stage your troubles, so far as keeping 
afloat is concerned, are over. Confidence is the secret of 
swimming. Some people say: "Oh, I'm not a bit afraid 
of going under, but that doesn't help me; I can't swim a 
stroke." They may not be afraid, but they enter the water 
confident that they are going to sink, and they do. As soon 
as a boy learns that he can keep afloat for two or three 
strokes he acquires the necessary confidence in the water, 
and away he goes — a swimmer. 

Under Water 

The swimmer usually enters the water with a dive; so 
let us consider diving. Stand with the feet together, and 
the body bent slightly forward. Place the hands together 
over your head, and plunge in head-first. As soon as you 
are under water separate your hands and extend them 
in front of the head. They will thus meet any obstacle you 
may happen to encounter under water, and protect your 

6 



SWIMMING COMES FIRST 



head. Keep your feet close together and your legs straight 
in diving; and whatever other bad habit you may acquire, 
I beg of you never to draw your knees up in front of you 
just as you are about to strike the water. It is absurd and 
ungraceful. 

If you want to go directly to the bottom when you dive, 
keep your body perfectly straight, and enter the water al- 
most perpendicularly. As soon as your hands strike the 
bottom, bend your body forward at the waist, double up 
your legs in front of you, and your feet will come down to 
the bottom. Then rise to a standing posture, place your 
arms flat against your sides, and spring upward from both 
feet, straightening your legs immediately. In water of 
moderate depth this will send you well out. If you are in 
deep water, raise your hands above your head; put them 
together, palms outward, the back of the fingers touching; 
then sweep them downward and outward with all your force. 
Don't use your legs at all, but keep them straight up and 
down. Repeat the stroke till you reach the surface, which 
you will do speedily. 

If you wish to plunge in and come to the surface imme- 
diately, begin your dive in the same way as before, but 
strike the water at a greater angle. I need not tell you not 
to strike it flat on your breast, because after you do that 
once you will be careful. As soon as your head is under 
water throw it backward and upward, at the same time 
bending your back all you can; in short, perform that grace- 
ful feat known to all boys as " bending the crab." You will 
find that thus you will merely skim under the surface of 
the water, even if you dive from a height of five or six feet. 

7 



BOATI NG BOOK FOR BOYS 

When you dive you do not always want to come up 
immediately, so you must learn to swim under water. In 
order to remain under water for any length of time you 
must learn how to hold your breath. Stand straight up 
and throw out your chest; then take two or three long 
breaths, drawing the lungs quite full of air and expelling 
every bit of it; after doing this, draw the lungs about 
half full, so that there is no strain upon them from their 
having too much air nor too little, and then dive. The 
lungs have been provided with clean, fresh air, every bit 
of foul air having been blown out, and when you have hit 
the exact point at which there is no strain, you will be 
astonished to find how much longer you can hold your 
breath by this method than by going at it haphazard. 
I have known several swimmers who could not stay under 
water over thirty seconds learn to remain immersed a 
minute and a half. 

Always keep your eyes open under water. It is danger- 
ous to do otherwise; you might swim head-first against a 
rock, stun yourself, and be drowned. Your eyes will 
speedily become accustomed to the water, and it will 
do them no harm % not even in the ocean. Do not dive 
with your eyes open, as their impact with the surface 
might hurt them, but open them as soon as they are 
under. 

To swim about under water keep your head down. Strike 
out just as you would on the surface, but turn the palms 
of the hands up as they pass backward, so as to keep 
forcing yourself downward. If you don't, you will rise to 
the surface in spite of yourself. 

8 



SWIMMING COMES FIRST 



Swimming on the Surface 

Now let me give you a hint or two about swimming on 
the surface. A good swimmer needs strong shoulders; so 
use Indian clubs. Then go to work to acquire a full sweep- 
ing stroke. The greatest fault among young swimmers is 
that they end the stroke just at the point where it ought to 
be most powerful; that is, when the arm is extended at 
right angles to the body. Don't stop there, but, keeping your 
arms stretched out at full length and the palms of the 
hands perpendicular, sweep the stroke backward with all 
your power till your hands nearly touch your sides. Then, 
turn the hands so that the palms are parallel with the bot- 
tom, bring them in under your breast, shoot them out 
ahead of you as far as you can, and repeat the stroke. In 
this way you will get all possible power into your breast 
stroke, and will make fine headway The best way of 
using the legs is the old-fashioned method of the frog, 
which needs no description. 

The side stroke is the best for speed. Lie on your right 
side, keeping your head down so that the water just touches 
your nose and mouth. Stretch the right arm out in front 
of you, with the palm of the hand downward; then sweep 
it downward and backward. While it is coming back, 
throw the left arm forward above the water. Bring the 
hand down just in front of your face and sweep it backward. 
The arms should move alternately, and the legs should be 
driven out behind at each stroke. When you become tired 
of swimming on the right side, turn over and swim on your 
left. 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

In learning to swim on your back study the different 
ways of swimming with the arms alone, the legs alone, or 
both together. You will find you can get along very fast 
by folding your arms and then drawing your legs up under 
you, kicking outward and backward, first with the left and 
then with the right. When you become tired of that, let 
the legs rest and propel yourself with your arms. The best 
stroke is like rowing: lift the hands out of the water, and 
carrying them forward as far as you can, drive them back- 
ward just under the surface, with the palms perpendicular. 

You should learn to undress in the water, so that you 
may save your life if you ever fall overboard from a boat. 
Practise the following method in some old clothes: Swim 
with your right hand and left foot, while you take off your 
right shoe with your left hand; get the other shoe off in a 
similar manner. Always take your shoes off first, as they 
are the greatest obstacles to swimming. Next turn over on 
your back and swim with your legs while you take off your 
coat and waistcoat. You'll get a few mouthfuls of water 
while trying this, but don't mind that. Now roll up your 
shirt - sleeves to the shoulder. Turn over on your breast, 
and roll up the legs of your trousers as far as you can, 
swimming with one hand and one foot while you do it. 
You have not much more than a bathing-suit on now, and 
can swim a long time. 

It is not likely that as a beginner you will ever attempt 
to save life; but when you do you must be cool about it. 
Try to get behind the drowning person and seize him by 
the collar; then lie on your back, keeping him also on his 
back, and swim toward the shore. By swimming on your 

10 



SWIMMING COMES FIRST 



back behind him and partly under him, you can keep clear 
of his struggles, and see that his face is above the surface. 
This is the method approved by many professional swimmers. 

Here are some practical explanations of the simpler 
water methods from Mr. "Gus" Sundstrom, a former 
champion long-distance swimmer. 

The Breast Stroke 

The first thing to master is the breast stroke. 

This is the stroke which frogs use, and always have 
used, and it seems to be the natural way of swimming. 
Imitate a frog as closely as you can, and you will need no 
better teacher. But a frog's legs and feet form one straight 
line, and his fingers are fastened together so as to form a 
very fine paddle. Hold your fingers close together when 
you strike out, so as to imitate the webbed feet of a duck; 
and when you draw up your legs for a fresh kick, be care- 
ful to straighten out your feet, so as to avoid the resistance 
of the water against your insteps. In kicking out, strike 
the soles of your feet against the water, as though you 
were pushing yourself up in bed. Spread your legs far 
apart as you kick, and then, when they are fully extended, 
comes an important point in swimming. Do not jerk them 
up for another kick, as ignorant swimmers do, but draw 
them tight together, as though your legs were a pair of 
shears with which you wanted to cut the water. By thus 
closing your legs on the water you will add almost as much 
to your speed as by the first kick. 

n 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Kick out as your arms are being extended for a stroke, 
and draw up your legs while making the stroke. That is 
the moment at which to get your breath, as the water is 
then smooth in front of you, and less apt to get into your 
mouth. It is well to accustom yourself to breathe only at 
every third stroke, as it will help you very much in rough 
water. It is important to draw the breath in quickly, and 
so breathing through the mouth, which ought not to be 
practised in other exercises, is good in swimming. 

Floating 

When you have learned to swim on the breast correctly 
and strongly, learn to float. Begin by taking in a deep 
breath, and then draw up your knees and place your hands 
upon them, squatting in the water. At first you will sink, 
but by and by you will float in that position, with the eyes 
just above the level of the water. That will accustom you 
to holding the breath. Then swim ahead with the or- 
dinary breast stroke, and, while well under way, suddenly 
give a reverse stroke with the hands. This will throw you 
upon your back, and by working the hands with a cork- 
screw motion you will keep afloat. If you are alone, you 
may swallow a good deal of water in learning unless you 
keep your mouth shut ; if you have any one to support you, 
it is very simple. Do not try to raise the head and keep 
the ears out of the water, as you cannot float in that posi- 
tion. Lie perfectly flat and straight, and in a natural posi- 
tion, as though stretched upon your back in bed. In 
swimming upon the back the legs do most of the work. 

12 






SWIMMING COMES FIRST 



Kick out with them as in the breast stroke, and paddle 
with your hands at the same time to keep afloat. When 
you become expert you can learn to swim very rapidly on 
the back by stretching your hands straight out above the 
head, lifting your arms from the water to do so, and then 
bringing them down to your sides with a long, powerful sweep 
through the water. 

Diving 

You will perhaps learn more about diving by watching a 
good diver than by many lines of printed instruction. Do 
not try to dive from a height at once, but begin about a 
foot from the surface of the water. Keep the feet together, 
and stretch the arms straight out before you, with the 
hands together and the palms downward. The hands 
should always strike the water first, to save the face from 
striking against any dangerous object in the water. When 
you first start, have some one hold your ankles. Then fall 
simply forward, without any jump, and let the friend who 
holds your ankles give them a slight toss, so as to send you 
down head-first and prevent you from striking upon the 
stomach. Draw a big breath while you are in the air. 
Close the eyes as you dive, but open them as soon as your 
head is under water. Accustom yourself early to being 
under water with your eyes open. It is very necessary, 
and will not hurt the eyes. You will soon learn the knack 
of diving, and accustom yourself gradually to different 
heights. Use your outstretched hands as a rudder. Keep 
them pointed downward as long as you wish to go down, 
and let them start upward when you want to rise. 

13 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Side-stroke 

First for the side-stroke underhand. You lie in the water 
upon the left side, half of your head being under water, and 
your face turned round toward the right shoulder. The 
left hand shoots out above the head, under water all the 
time, while the right arm is extended along the body. For 
the first stroke bring the left hand down with a powerful 
sweep until the fingers are just above the left knee; at the 
same time shoot out the right hand, and bring it back to 
the original position with a shorter sweep. The arms are 
thus made to work alternately, and while the right arm is 
being pushed ahead, the legs kick out, catching the water 
on the insteps. This stroke, which permits of very fast 
swimming, should be practised on either side. 

The best stroke known for long and rapid swimming is 
the overhand side-stroke. The position is the same as in the 
underhand, and the principle is the same, with one excep- 
tion. While swimming on the left side, instead of pushing 
the right hand ahead under water, and making but a short 
stroke with it, it is lifted out of the water and thrown far 
ahead, not touching the water again until it is fully stretched 
out. It is then brought down to the body with a long and 
very powerful sweep. There is a stroke known as the 
" porpoise stroke," in which the swimmer reaches around 
with his right arm as far as possible back of his head, 
so as to get a longer sweep. The power of the stroke 
may be increased, but the swimmer is fully half of the 
time under water, and that way of swimming is very 
exhausting. 

14 



SWIMMING COMES FIRST 



Fancy Swimming 

Any one who has mastered the strokes already spoken of 
is a thorough swimmer, and for practical purposes needs 
nothing more. With the ability to dive from a height, 
float, and swim strongly, he can always take care of him- 
self. But there are endless feats in fancy swimming that 
all boys long to master. In diving alone there are in- 
numerable variations. There is the farmer's dive, in which 
you jump with the legs doubled up, and strike the water 
with the shins. The efforts to keep from turning a somer- 
sault are very comical; and there are all the amusing dives 
that can be made from a spring-board. Practise a little 
until you learn to take advantage of the springiness of the 
board, and then watch good divers. You will soon learn 
all that they know if you are not afraid to try — somersaults 
in the air, long and high diving, and all. The backward 
somersault is easiest to learn, but in practising never fail 
to hold the hands so that they will strike the water before 
the head does. 

But * 'fetching" — that is, going a long distance under 
water — is good practice, and a few words about it may be 
of interest. Take a regular dive, without any upward 
jump, but sharp into the water head-first, and with a good 
start forward. Allow your body to go down about three 
feet under water, and then swim straight ahead with the 
breast stroke. Do not make the movements too quickly, 
because, instead of making you go farther, it will cause you 
to lose breath much more rapidly, and diminish the length 
of your "fetch." Keep your eyes open, and use your 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



hands as a rudder to keep you from rising or from sinking 
too far. After a few trials you will know instinctively how 
to keep. at the right depth, and then your expertness will 
depend upon your ability to hold your breath. 

The various special and racing strokes, the "crawl," 
"overhand," "truncheon," etc., are not necessary for our 
immediate purpose. We may add that when one has 
learned to swim well, it is desirable to practise "rescue" 
work under supervision, swimming with one's clothes on, 
which has been described on a preceding page, and up- 
setting and regaining boats or canoes. 



Part II 



HOW TO MAKE PLAY BOATS 



Chapter II 

MODEL YACHTS 

WHEREVER there are boys and water, model yachts of 
some kind are sure to be found. There is a good deal 
of fun to be had with chips and nutshells, with pins or 
matches for masts, scraps of paper for sails, and a gutter or 
a puddle to represent the ocean. But boys can generally 
have access to a brook or a pond, and as nautical tastes 
generally go with more or less mechanical ingenuity, boys 
who have tools — a jack-knife, by the way, is a whole chest 
of tools in skilled hands — are sure to go farther, and con- 
struct more complete vessels. 

Very elaborate model yachts, embodying the latest ideas 
of yacht designers, are built by members of the American 
Model Yacht and Brooklyn clubs, and the members of 
several other model yacht clubs in this country and Canada. 

There is skill and science in the building and sailing of 
model yachts, and the best sailor is sure to win in a race if 
he has a reasonably good boat. We will save time, trouble, 
and labor by giving certain directions as to shaping the hull 
and fitting spars and sails to the best advantage. 

The Plan 

No vessel, large or small, can be successfully built with- 
out a drawn plan. In the case of large vessels this is made 

19 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

on a reduced scale, with painstaking accuracy, so that the 
measurements will bear enlarging to the full size; but with 
a model yacht the drawings may be made of the full size, 
and, as it were, on the frame itself. 

It is easier to reduce a plan than to enlarge it: so the 
one given herewith represents a boat thirty-six inches long, 
as that is probably as large as any one will wish to build. 
The proportions of length, breadth, and depth here given are 
not intended to show the best possible shape for a model 
yacht. Some good judges will say that there is not enough 
beam for the length, and others that there is too much beam 
for the length. These are questions which have never been 
settled — perhaps never will be settled. At all events, we 
will tell how to plan one boat. If you want greater depth 
and less beam, it is only necessary to change the plan accord- 
ing to your own ideas. 

Size of the Boat 

For convenience, then, let us say that the boat is to be 
thirty-six inches long, ten inches wide, and eight inches 
deep. If you are a good carpenter you can buy a piece of 
pine timber in the rough and plane it down to the above 
dimensions; but it is better to have a skilled workman do 
this, so as to begin with every angle true and square. The 
wood must be as nearly perfect as possible, free from knots 
and cracks, straight - grained, and well - seasoned through- 
out. 

The smoothly planed sides will receive pencil marks as 
well as paper, but pieces of card-board should be glued 

20 



MODEL YACHTS 



upon the ends where the grain is such that accurate draw- 
ing is impossible. (See Fig. i.) 

While the glue is drying mark off each of the four long 
sides into six-inch spaces, measuring always from the same 





■ v. v. --. " - - - 


A 


N 


V 








N 


"s: 


, ^ V. 
















>s 




























J 

















Fig. I 

end of the block and marking the divisions with a notch 
deep enough to prevent mistakes. With a sharp lead- 
pencil draw straight lines from notch to notch across all 
four sides. By the time this is done the glue should be dry 
enough to permit marking on the cardboard. 

Draw a central line from end to end of the ten-inch sides, 
and continue it across the ends. (See A A, Fig. i.) 



Accurate Drawing 

These lines must be very accurately drawn, so that if 
the block were sawn in two, following them, it would be 
exactly divided in half lengthwise. When drawn they 
should be scored with a marker, so that they cannot be 
rubbed off. Next mark off the ends in two-inch squares, 
and draw lines as shown in Fig. i, dividing the four sides 
of the block into parallelograms of two inches by six inches, 
and two-inch squares on the ends. 

21 



BOATING BOOK FO R BOYS 

In Fig. 2, A represents a side of the block, B the top or 
deck, C the stern, and D the bow. The long curved line 
near the upper edge of A is known as the "sheer line." It 
shows the curve of the deck from bow to stern. To draw 
it, take a straight, slender strip of wood, drive two wire 
nails into the block; say at a and a, and resting the strip 
upon them, bend it downward till the curve is sufficient, 
when a third nail may be set above the middle of the strip 
to hold it, and the line drawn with a pencil. By setting the 
nails exactly opposite on the other side of the block the 
sheer line may be repeated there. The line of the keel is 
straight for almost the whole length of the block, and the 
lines for bow and stern can be drawn by measurement to 
correspond on the opposite sides; or, if desired, paper pat- 
terns may be cut, and used for guides on either side. The 
shaded portions of Fig. 2 show the lead keel and the rudder, 
which are made and attached afterward. If there is any 
choice between the two broad sides of the block, select that 
which is freest from defects for the bottom of the boat, as 
the upper, or deck, side will be for the most part cut away. 
Draw the outlines of the deck (B, Fig. 2) by bending a 
slender piece of wood as in the case of the sheer line. To 
secure absolute accuracy it is best to double a piece of 
paper and cut out a half -breadth plan, with the doubled 
edge on the central line. 

When opened and laid on the block, the deck outline 
may be accurately traced along the edge of the pattern. 
Draw also an inner line, half an inch from the outer one, 
as a guide in making the hold. 

Draw the after sections on the cardboard at one end 

22 



MODEL YACHTS 



MAST 




TOP OF BLOCK "WITH DECK PLAN 
3>Z I / as 3 4 5 543 




Fig. 2 

END OF BLOCK 

C, After sections; D, Fore sections 

of the block (C, Fig, 2) and the fore sections on the other 
end (D, Fig. 2), as indicated; the midship section (3) need 
not be drawn on both, except for convenience. The dot- 
ted line shows the inner surface of the hold. 

Scooping Out the Hull 

Now comes an operation which will render the trimming 
and scooping comparatively easy, and will define within 

23 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

the block the exact shape of hull and hold. Take a straight 
brad-awl, and beginning with the midship section (3), 
measure the distance from b to c carefully from the point of 
the awl. To mark the space on the awl, wind a small rub- 
ber elastic band around it, or drive it through a small bit 
of solid rubber — anything, in fact, that will not slip too 
easily up and down the awl, and can still be moved readily 
if desired. Bore a hole at c perpendicularly to the surface 
of the block; of course, the end of the hole will mark the 
point b within the block. Bore a corresponding hole on 
the opposite side of the block without changing the posi- 
tion of the marker. Next slip the marker up on the awl 
to correspond with the distance d, e, and bore holes at d and 
d, and so on, boring holes at all the intersections of lines 
where the thickness of wood is not too great. Where the 
awl is too short, the hole may be finished by means of a 
steel knitting-needle filed to a wedge-like point, and held 
with a pair of pliers or a hand- vise. When all the holes are 
made it is evident that the outside of the hull will be de- 
fined within the block. In the same way bore holes in the 
deck plan, defining the inside of the hold, making all meas- 
urements on the end cards. 

Cutting Away the Wood 

In cutting away the wood it is easy to cut too deep if 
the awl marks are not plainly to be seen. To prevent this, 
procure a supply of bird-shot of a size to fit tight in the awl 
holes. Press a shot into each hole, and drive it home with 
the square end of the knitting-needle. This done, there 

24 



MODEL YACHTS 



will be two systems of holes, with a leaden shot at the bot- 
tom of each. The sides of the holes will have been blackened 
by the passage of the shot, and the cutting may be done 
with a free hand until the shot are reached. 

Scoop out the hold first, as the block in its original' shape 
will be better on the bench for working. A few holes bored 
nearly to the bottom of the hold with an auger will greatly 
help work with the gouge. Do not remove the wood from 
the overhang of the stern until after the hole is made for 
the rudder post (R), and then cut away all round it, leaving 
solid wood up to the deck-level for a rudder-case. This 
will prevent leakage at the rudder-head. The inside of the 
hold need not be smoothed. It will be concealed by the 
deck, and to sand-paper the tool marks to a cabinet finish 
is a mere waste of time. If convenient, put the block in 
water when the hold is finished to see if it balances. If not, 
trim away carefully on the heavier side until it floats nearly 
true. No matter about the trim fore and aft at this stage of 
the work. 

In trimming the outside, the profile of bow and stern and 
the line of the keel should first be cut away across the whole 
width of the block. This may be freely done with saw, 
plane, and shave. With a fine saw cut carefully down at 
the numbered points in A (Fig. 2) as far as the sheer line. 
Do this on both sides. Next, the large masses of wood at 
bow and stern may be sawed off on lines not quite touching 
the side curves. 

If the model is placed in a vise for trimming, the inside 
should be strengthened by cross-pieces to resist pressure from 
the outside. Trim away the outside with chisel, gouge, or 

3 25 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



knife until the shot are all removed, and then finish care- 
fully with sand-paper and rasp, until the whole model is 
fair, round, and smooth. The last thing to be done is to 
trim the gunwales down to the sheer-line, using the saw- 
cuts already made as guides for the drawing-knife or spoke- 
shave. 

Finishing the Hull 

The thickness of the sides of the model has been given 
as half an inch, but skilled workmen may reduce this to 
a quarter of an inch,, or even less. Near the ends and along 
the bottom greater thickness is required for strength. 
Model yachts may be built in several different ways, but 
the hollowed block is the simplest. When the hull is 
shaped, bore a quarter-inch hole for the rudder head, run- 
ning up through the solid wood of the stern, on the line of 
the stern-post (R, Fig. 2). This done, the overhang may 
be lightened by cutting away the extra wood, leaving, say, 
half an inch of thickness to serve as a rudder-case. 

Cross-pieces half an inch thick are now set in place to 
strengthen the deck, at the mast-step, and elsewhere if 
needed (see dotted lines on deck plan, Fig. 2), a hole is 
bored to receive the foot of the mast, and then the whole 
interior is painted with white lead and allowed to dry 
before the deck is finally in place. As the wet paint is 
out of the way, however, work may go on. 

The deck is made of quarter-inch or eighth-inch pine, 
bass-wood, white-wood, or cedar — the lighter the better. 
Lay it on the work-bench with one or two blocks under it 
to bend it to the sheer of the gunwale, and turning the 

26 



MODEL YACHTS 



model upside down, mark the shape with a lead-pencil, 
trim it out nearly to the line, fasten it in position with a 
few fine wire nails, and finish trimming the edges. Bore 
holes for the mast, rudder, and hatchway (if one is re- 
quired), and make also a small hole, say at X (see deck 
plan, Fig. 2), where any leakage may be poured out in 
case of need. A hatchway large enough for a hand and 
arm is very convenient should anything go wror. 
decks. Paint the under side of the deck, and leave it 1? 
dry with the rest of the inside painc. 

Ballast and Keel 

It is now necessary to set the ship afloat again to get 
her in trim for the lead keel. Probably she will require 
four or five pounds of ballast. This may be laid inside 
in small pieces till the proper immersion is secured and 
the required weight ascertained. The mold is simply a 
trough about half an inch wide and an inch and a half 
deep in the middle. It is best made by cutting a half- 
inch board to something like the shape indicated in A, 
Fig. 3. Set wooden pegs in the edge at three-inch inter- 
vals as indicated, and then nail other boards against its 
sides (B, Fig. 3). Pour in the proper amount of melted 



[T^=^ 



j 1 1 1. 




BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

lead, and when it has cooled it will be found that the pegs 
have left holes in the metal, which can be easily reamed 
out and countersunk, so that the keel can be fastened to 
the bottom of the model by means of brass screws. Before 
fastening it in place, smooth away all imperfections in 
casting, and shape the lead so as to correspond with the 
general line of the model. It is not intended here to in- 
dicate the exact lines that will give the best results, but if 
these are followed, the model will not be far out of the 
way, and any variations may be corrected by inside bal- 
last as may be needed. The best form of ballast is shot 
in half-pound bags. Fasten the deck to gunwales and 
beams with small, flat-headed, brass- wire nails driven at 
intervals of about one inch. The model is now ready for 
paint and varnish. 

Spars and Rigging 

While the paint is drying, work may begin on spars, 
sails, and rigging. The cutter or sloop rig is, upon the 
whole, the best for model yachts, as it is for their larger 
kindred. The spars required for such a craft are lower 
mast, topmast, boom, gaff, and bowsprit. Spruce is the 
best material for a solid mast, but bamboo is preferred by 
many builders. The diameter of the lower mast should 
be at least one-sixtieth the length of the boat: about five- 
eighths of an inch for a three-foot model. The lengths 
and proportions of the spars and the shape of the sails 
may be nearly enough judged from Figs. 4 and 5, which 
are from photographs of American and English model 
yachts. 

28 




SPARS, SAILS, AND DECK FITTINGS 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

The Englishman (Fig. 5), it will be noticed, carries no 
jib-topsail. Her length is five feet, and her beam only six 
inches, or one in ten — a marked contrast to our American 
models; and we may note here that center-boards have 
been ruled out of model-yacht club races in England in 
loyal support of the position taken by owners of larger 
craft. She is steered without a rudder by trimming sails 
and shifting ballast. 

Sails 

Light muslin or cotton sheeting is the best material for 
sails. Soak it in cold water overnight, and dry without 
wringing. Then iron it smooth and mark the shape of the 
sails with a pencil, having first cut out paper patterns to 
serve as guides. The sails of a " single-sticker " are main- 
sail, gaff-topsail, stay-sail, jib, jib-topsail. The forward 
edge of the sail is called the "luff," and the after edge the 
"leech." The material should be cut so that the selvage 
will form the leech of mainsail and gaff- topsail, and the 
luff of all the head-sails. The other edges are turned over 
and stitched on a sewing-machine, with narrow tape in 
addition to the hem if desired. The "set" of the sail is 
improved by cutting the foot on a slight curve, and in that 
case the tape should be sewed on straight across, not fol- 
lowing the curve. Eyelet-holes are made at all the corners 
of all the sails, and along such edges as have to be laced 
to a spar or a stay. It is proper to say that some experts 
hold that the foot of the mainsail should not be laced to 
the boom. Small brass curtain-rings are sewn to the edges 
of such sails as are to be hoisted and lowered. 

30 



MODEL YACHTS 



The head-sails are best set "flying," provided with rings 
or loops at the corners — that is, so that they can be hooked 
to the proper points of attachment on masthead, bow- 
sprit, and tack. 

The bowsprit is a trifle more difficult. A brass screw- 
eye large enough to receive it is set in the cutwater. Six 
or eight inches from this, in exact line with the middle of 
the boat, is a step for the heel of the bowsprit — namely, 
two cleats screwed to the deck far enough apart for the 
squared heel of the bowsprit to rest between them. At 
this point the deck should be reinforced underneath, un- 
less it is thick enough to withstand the strain. An easily 
removable pin made of brass wire passes through the heel 
of the bowsprit and through both the cleats. 

Deck Fittings 

Two other deck fittings are required — namely, the trav- 
elers, which are made of spring brass wire about an eighth 
of an inch in diameter, and bent to the shape indicated in 
Fig. 6. They may be made long enough to reach clear 
across the deck, and be screwed to the gunwales. If pre- 
ferred, however, they may be shorter, and screwed through 
the deck to a beam or partner. Before fastening it down, 
pass it through a small, strong brass ring to which the jib 
or main-sheets may be attached. 

In Fig. 6, too, are shown the hook and the "fiddle," the 
latter being a piece of bone or hard-wood pierced with 
small holes, through which a line passes in and out as 
shown, and by means of which standing or running rigging 
can be lengthened or shortened as required, 

3i 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



The main-sheet traveler is set a little forward of the 
rudder, and the stay-sail traveler a little forward of the 
mast. To the rings on each are made fast the "sheets," 
or lines that regulate the position of the sails. The jib- 
sheet and jib-topsail sheet are made fast to bowsprit and 
mast, as may be seen in Figs. 4 and 5. This is one of the 
particulars in which the rig of a model must needs differ from 
that of a real vessel, where there are always men to tend 
the jib-sheets, whereas in a model they must tend themselves. 

The necessary standing rigging may be limited to shrouds 
(namely, stout lines running from the head of the lower 
mast to the gunwales nearly opposite the mast), and a 
stay from the head of the lower mast to the head of the 
stem. This may be attached to the "gammoning," or 
screw-eye through which the bowsprit runs. Other stays, 
according to the number of jibs, may be required between 
topmast and bowsprit. The bowsprit itself should be 
strengthened by a bobstay underneath, and bowsprit 
shrouds at the sides, unless it is heavy enough to bear any 
possible strain by itself. All these stays should have hooks, 
so that they can readily be unfastened or adjusted as to 
length. Where fiddles are undesirable, the line may be 
passed through an eye and then around a cleat. 

The best line for standing and running rigging is linen 
fish -line, which may be had of any size. For lashings use 
strong linen thread. 

Seamanship 

It is very easy to make a model yacht that will sail close- 
hauled but will not run before the wind; but to make one 

32 



MODEL YACHTS 



that will go in any given direction calls for science. In 
order to tell how to sail a model yacht on different winds, 
it seems necessary to define two terms — namely, i, the 
center of lateral resistance of the hull; and, 2, the center 
of effort of the sails. If you attempt to pull a boat side- 
wise through the water by a line attached to her side, she 
will sheer one way or the other, according as the line is near 
the bow or the stern. The point where she can be towed 
squarely broadside on is the center of lateral resistance. 
The center of effort of the sails is that point where they 
would all balance if they were cut out of stiff cardboard 
and held up against the wind. 

Now it is necessary to have these two centers nearly in the 
same line, one above the other. The first may be nearly 
enough found by towing side wise as suggested. The second 
may be fixed by cutting out a small general pattern of the 
sail plan in cardboard and balancing it, say, on the flat 
head of a nail or some such object. This will give the center 
of effort, and by measurement you can place it in the actual 
sails. 

In making the original plans for sails and hull these 
centers should be kept in mind, and the aim of the builder 
should be to prevent their falling very far apart. If they 
do not come out right, one or the other must be shifted. 
Deepening the keel toward the stern moves the center of 
lateral resistance aft, and the reverse moves it forward. 
So also does shifting ballast in either direction. Increasing 
the area of head-sails moves the center of effort forward, 
and the contrary if the after-sails are enlarged. In this 
way the two centers can probably be brought together. If 

33 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



not, it may become necessary to insert a false keel between 
the lead keel and the wooden keel. This is easily done by 
planing out a wedge-shaped piece of wood of the same 
thickness as the keel, but deeper toward bow or stern as 
may be required. Holes are burned or bored through it 
to correspond with the screw holes in the lead keel. 



A Self-acting Helm 

In sailing, as soon as the model heels over under the 
pressure of the wind the center of effort moves aft, and she 
tends to come up into the wind and lose headway. To 
counteract this a self-acting helm is necessary. (See 
Figs. 7 and 8.) A B is a brass tiller with a screw-thread 



A vfc^stsr 





Fig. 7 



Fig. 8 



turned on it. It extends aft from the rudder-head. It 
carries a leaden ball weighing from two to four ounces or 
more, as may prove necessary, and is fitted to run on the 
tiller-screw. When the model heels over, as in Fig. 8, the 
leaden ball will tend to swing toward the lower or lee side : 
in sea language, the helm will put itself a-weather, and the 
tendency to luff will be corrected. By moving the leaden 
ball in or out, the strength of the helm can be increased or 

34 



MODEL YACHTS 



lessened. The same result is gained by weighting the 
after-part of the rudder with lead. (See shaded portion of 
rudders in Figs. 7 and 8.) Sometimes a model yacht is 
fitted with a set of several loaded rudders of different 
weights and sizes which are easily unshipped, and are used 
according to wind or course. There are in use very in- 
genious and effective contrivances through which the main- 
sheet is attached to the tiller, and so steers the boat, but 
they are too complicated to describe here. 

Some Rules for Navigation 

No rules can be laid down which will cover every case, 
or which will meet the habits of every boat, for boats are 
just as full of notions as people are, and their humors have 
always to be taken into the account. With a boat whose 
centers are nearly in line, the following rules should hold 
good: 

1. To sail to windward. — Trim the main-sheet well in, 
and let head-sails be rather slack. Set the lead ball rather 
near the rudder -head. Some experiments will probably be 
necessary before you will learn the proper relations of sheet 
and helm. Keep on trying till she sails steadily on either 
tack. Shift ballast if necessary. 

2. Reaching. — Give her more helm — that is, move the 
ball farther out on trie tiller; slack the main-sheet till the 
boom can swing out about fifteen degrees. Probably no 
change will be needed in the head-sails. 

3. Quartering of the wind. — -Slack away the main-sheet 
still farther, and give her still more helm. 

35 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

4. Down the wind. — Guy out the boom at right angles 
with the hull, and move the leaden ball out to the very 
end of the tiller. 

These directions, as has been said, may not work in all 
cases. Every boat has fancies of its own, particularly 
about the jib-sheets. Nothing but experiment will show 
what treatment each requires. Considerable changes are 
often found necessary before a boat can be made to sail in 
a way that will fully satisfy expert sailormen. 

One item in the model yachtman's equipment has not 
been mentioned — namely, the line with which he captures 
or rescues his boat when she runs away or comes to grief. 
This is a fishing-line with a sinker attached. It is a good 
plan to cover the sinker with cloth, so that it will not 
damage hull or spars if it chances to hit them. The sinker 
may weigh three ounces or so, and the line should be as 
long as the owner can manage. The sinker is thrown so 
that the line will fall across some part of the rigging or hull, 
and the weight of the sinker will enable the owner to pull 
the boat ashore. 

The method described in this chapter of hollowing out a 
solid piece of wood is probably the best for boys. A second 
method is to saw out some planks in the middle, glue 
them together, and pare them down. Experts make their 
models by timbering and planking as in the case of real 
boats. 



Chapter III 

SUGGESTIONS FOR SLOOP MODELING 

WITH the assistance of a few practical designs, drawn 
on a scale, the correct form of the newest sloop yachts 
in America can be easily shown to you in a way that will 
help any boy if he wants to build a model. They are 




HINTS ABOUT RIGGING, GROPES, BLOCKS, STAYS, AND SHROUDS 

37 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



divided into two classes, known as the regular and fin 
(keel). Look carefully at the plan of sail area and hull, 
and mark out your block, which should be of soft and well- 
seasoned pine free from knots. Take a fine rule and meas- 
ure each part of the design; for instance, if the deck is 
two and one-half inches, multiplied by ten it would give 
your model twenty-five inches for deck, or ten times the 
size of your draft. This is the way a yacht-builder con- 
structs the vessel from the designer's plans. 

The Fin-keel 

The easiest model to make and the fastest is the fin-keel. 
Take your block of wood and shape it into a form resembling a 
cigar ; cut this in two lengthwise ; be sure and have all your 
wetting surface take a slight outward curve ; bring the stern 
down to a knife-edge (see side view of hull, Fig. i), and give 
it a broad sweep on deck ; put but a slight curve in the deck 




Fig. I 

THE " FIN-KEEL " MODEL. SIDE AND END SECTIONS 

fore and aft; saw a slight slit in the bottom and center of 
your boat lengthwise, and insert a brass plate (same shape as 
shown in design); it should be composed of one-sixteenth 
of an inch brass. Mold your lead bulb in white plaster-of- 
Paris. This is done in the following way : Make a wooden 

38 



SUGGESTIONS FOR SLOOP MODELING 

form of a half-section, coat it lightly with lard, and rut 
smooth; take a small wooden box, and fill it with wet 
plaster-of -Paris ; even off the surface, and press the form 
to be molded even with the surface, taking care to have 
the rounded part downward ; leave it in this state for about 
two days, and upon removing the wood it will be found 
that the result is a perfect fac-simile of the pattern, except 
it is the reverse; pour in your melted lead and allow it to 
cool for three hours. Two casts will make a perfect bulb 
for the fin. These casts should be riveted on each side of 
the fin. Now pass the fin up through the slit previously 
made in bottom of hull; bore holes in the upper part of 
the fin plate, and rivet a block on each side from the inside 
of the hull. This will keep it in place. Screw the blocks 
to the hull. 

Deck and Spars 

Now put on your deck, and after that tack on a very 
slight strip over it, following the outer edges of the deck. 
The mast-hole is a little aft of one-third of the deck meas- 
urement. Put in a piece of brass tubing for the mast-step, 
and a smaller piece for the rudder-sleeve. Before putting 
on the deck put four slats across to form deck beams. 
The deck should be about one-eighth of an inch thick. 
Make your spars of pine. The boom and gaff should taper 
slightly at each end. Use only pine and brass in your con- 
struction, and do not attempt to use any but marine glue, 
as any other kind will give way when brought in contact 
with water. 

39 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Paint and Varnish 

When the hull is finished paint below the water-line a 
light green, add a little varnish with the paint; above the 
water-line it can be painted either white or black, but it 
will be found that the latter color is the more practical. 
Give the deck and spars two coats of varnish. The sails 
should be of the lightest muslin. Mark with a soft lead- 
pencil the lines that are shown in the design (Fig. 2), which 
will serve to show how the clothes are laid on a yacht's sails. 
If you wish wire rigging, buy a coil of three-ply picture 
wire, and when heated red-hot drop in cool water. This 
takes the temper out of it, and makes it easy to divide. To 
take the kinks out of it run it back and forth over a soft 
piece of pine. A very good substitute for thimbles used on 
a yacht can be obtained by using the old eyelets on a laced 
shoe. 

Flags 

Every yacht has its own private flag, and also a club flag. 
When racing, the club flag is carried at tip of the topmast, 
and the private flag is fastened on the mainsail leech, just 
below the gaff. If two or more models are racing, a number 
should be printed in black on a small piece of white cloth, 
say one and a half by three inches, and pinned on each side 
of mainsail, about four inches above the boom and two 
inches away from the mast. In case a race is arranged, 
ascertain in which direction the wind blows, and race di- 

40 



SUGGESTIONS FOR SLOOP MODELING 




Fig. 2 



SAILS, SHEER PLAN, CROSS-SECTION, AND DECK VIEWS OF THE KEEL BOAT 



rectly against it, so as to return with a free wind. The 
other way is to make a triangular course. September and 
the first part of October is the very best time in the year 
to sail miniature yachts. 



Chapter IV 

HOW TO MAKE A TOY STEAMBOAT 

ROBERT FULTON could not have been more proud and 
delighted with his first successful steamboat than was the 
writer when, as a boy, he succeeded in making a toy craft 
that would run itself. (Fig. i). 



The Motor-power 

The drawings and diagrams that are here given explain 
how to make a small boat, the motor-power being a thin 




w~^ 



Fig. 1 

THE TOY STEAMBOAT " ROBERT FULTON " 

band of elastic, one end of which is attached to the center 
of the paddle-wheel axle, the other end being tied to the 

42 



HOW TO MAKE A TOY STEAMBOAT 

flag-staff in the bow of the boat. A piece of string a few 
inches longer than the elastic when the latter is stretched 
out to its full length is also attached to the axle about 
midway between the elastic and one of the paddle-wheels. 
Do not tie the string on until you have turned the paddle- 
wheels around backward until the elastic is stretched to its 
utmost. When you let go the paddle-wheels the elastic 
will unwind; in doing this it will wind the string on the 
axle; so to start the boat you simply have to draw the 
string out to its full length. 

The Hull 

The hull is made from a piece of soft wood about a foot long 
and an inch thick, shaped as shown in the diagrams. (Fig. 2) . 
The boat is flat -bottomed, and is not hollow, the wood being 
sufficiently buoyant. The paddle-wheels are made of 
shingle or cigar-box wood about three and a half inches 
long and one inch wide, with an incision cut in the center 
the same width as the thickness of the board ; four of these 
will be necessary to make the two wheels. They are joined 
together by the axle, which should be about the thickness 
of a lead-pencil and half an inch longer than the width of 
the boat, to prevent the wheels catching on the sides of 
the boat as they revolve. 

To fasten the paddle-wheels on the axle, drive a small 
finishing nail through one section of the paddle at the 
incision into the end of the axle, as shown in Fig. 2 ; then 
fit the sections together, and the paddle-wheels are com- 
plete. The axle is kept in place by pieces of wire, or pins 

43 



HOW TO MAKE A TOY STEAMBOA T 

with their heads filed off, bent like a horseshoe, and placed 
over the axle and driven into the boat. The cabin is made 
of white cardboard, measuring, when extended out before 
being bent, about twenty inches; the sides are seven inches 
long and one and a half inches high. Upon this windows 
are painted in black. If you have no black paint, ink will 
do nearly as well. White spaces must be left to represent 
the sash. In the back of the cabin a small hole is punched 
through the cardboard for the winding-up cord to pass 
through. The dotted lines in the cut show where to bend 
the cardboard to form the four sides of the cabin. The 
pilot-house is bent in only one place to form the back, the 
front curving round in a half circle. (Fig. 3.) 

The Cabin 

After having fastened the sides of the cabin to the hull, 
place the boat upside down on a sheet of cardboard, and 
with a pencil go around the cabin; lift off the boat, and 
you will have a pattern for the roof. Cut around the out- 
lines, leaving a quarter of an inch between your scissors 
and the outline. When you fasten on the roof it will pro- 
ject beyond the sides of the cabin, and this will improve the 
appearance of your boat. The smoke-stack is made of 
the same material as the cabin, blackened to give it the 
appearance of being made of iron. To make it circular, 
roll it around a lead-pencil. The pieces are fastened to- 
gether by pasting a strip of writing-paper half an inch wide 
over the joint, half on each side. Fasten the flag-staff 
securely in place by boring a hole with a gimlet in the bow 

45 




v . ql ^e IIS J &»*5 



Fig. 3 

WORKING PLANS 



HOW TO MAKE A TOY STEAMBOAT 

of the boat, and then the vessel will be ready to be launched 
with appropriate ceremonies. 

The boilers will never burst, and when the steam gives 
out it is only necessary to pull the string to procure a new 
supply that will send the little paddle-wheels whirling with 
renewed vigor, to the great delight of everybody. 



Chapter V 

A BOAT WITH A SCREW PROPELLER 

TO make a model steamboat that will go is the ambition 
of many boys, but the high price of engine and boiler 
prevents them from doing so. The instructions here given 
will enable any boy to make for himself, by the exercise of 
a little ingenuity, at a very trifling cost, the machinery for 
a model screw steamboat which may be fitted into any 
craft, the rigging of which may have been wrecked off the 
dangerous coast of the duck-pond. 

First you must procure your boat; but if you should 
wish to make it yourself, remember that it must be very 
light and hollowed out as thin as possible. Let it be twenty- 
four inches long, four inches wide at midships, and three and 
a half inches deep. The stern-post should be about an inch 
and a half within the stern, raking, and two and a half inches 
high, as marked in Fig. i. Fasten a strip of lead one-eighth 
of an inch thick along the bottom of the keel. The bows 
should be sharp, and the boat should have a clean run aft. 
When it is finished paint it, and when dry put it into water, 
and mark on the stern-post the height that the water comes. 
Now you must bore a hole in the stern-post right through 
into the boat in the direction of the top of the stem. This 

48 



A BOA T WITH A SCREW PROPELLER 

must be done with a red-hot wire; the hole is to be three- 
eighths of an inch across. 



Making the Machinery 

The next thing to do is to get a brass tube from the gas- 
fitter's, or get a tinman to make you one of tin, three- 
eighths of an inch inside measurement. This tube must 




finch 



Fig. I 




Fig. 3 

be long enough to reach from the stern-post to three and 
a half inches beyond the top of the stem. Four inches 
from one end of this tube solder a strip half an inch wide 
and one and three-quarters inches long, bending the mid- 
49 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



die of it half round the tube, and bending the ends cut- 
ward ; punch a hole in each end of this strip ; in this end 
of the tube cut four teeth like saw-teeth one-eighth of an 
inch deep, like Fig. 2. 

Put this tube in the boat thus: push the end without 
the tin strip through the hole in the stern-post from the 
inside of the boat, so that the tube is flush with the wood, 
and fasten the other end by driving tacks through the 
holes in the tin strip into the boat. Put some putty round 
the tube, where it goes through the wood, to keep the w T ater 
out. Now make the deck of board one-eighth of an inch 
thick, plane it, and fix it in its place by pins, leaving a gun- 
wale of half an inch all round. Stop up with putty, and 
mark with a pencil the boards on the deck. 

Bore a hole near the stern a sixteenth of an inch wide 
right through the deck and boat, coming out under the 
counter one inch from the stern-post. This is the rudder- 
hole. To make the rudder get a piece of brass wire one- 
sixteenth of an inch, and six inches long; cut your rudder 
out of tin, and solder it on to the wire so that the heel of 
the rudder is flush with one end of the wire. Now push 
the other end up through the hole in the counter, and bend 
it down to the deck; this will form the tiller, and by press- 
ing tightly onto the deck will keep the rudder firm and in 
its place for steering. 

Two inches abaft the middle of the deck cut a hole three- 
quarters of an inch in diameter for the chimney, which is 
a tube of tin three-quarters of an inch in diameter and four 
inches long. Bore two more holes in the deck, three-eighths 
of an inch in diameter, one half-way between the stem and 

50 



A BOAT WITH A SCREW PROPELLER 

the chimney, the other half-way between the rudder and 
the chimney; these are for masts, which are made of wood, 
and should stand about nine inches above deck; put a 
pin into the lower end of each mast, and cut the head off, 
leaving about half an inch of the pin projecting; put the 
masts in their places, and the pins will keep them firm by 
being pushed into the bottom of the boat. 

The Propeller 

Make the propeller out of a circular piece of stout tin 
two inches in diameter, cut as in Fig. 3. The dark parts 
are to be cut away. The projections are to be three- 
quarters of an inch long. Punch a hole one-sixteenth of 
an inch in the center, and fix a piece of brass wire one- 
sixteenth of an inch, two inches long, in the hole, to 
form an axle for the propeller. Twist each of the fans 
of the screw out of the plane of the circle about a quarter 
of an inch, in the manner of the sails of a wind-mill, 
as in Fig. 4. Now make two little wooden plugs three- 
quarters of an inch long, and half an inch wide at one. end, 
tapering to a quarter of an inch at the other. Bore a hole 
through each from end to end one-sixteenth of an inch 
wide. Take the propeller, and put a glass head that will 
fit easily on the wire, and push the wire through one of the 
wooden plugs from the large end; bend the wire into a 
loop at the small end. 

Power 

Now take another piece of wire two and a half inches 
long, and make a similar loop at one end, and put the other 

51 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

end through the other little plug from the small end, and 
bend the wire into a handle (Fig. 5). Now the only thing 
we want is the power. This is a strip of strong elastic about 
three and a half feet long and a quarter of an inch wide; 




Fig. 5 



&=- 



Fig. 4 




tie the ends together to make a band — a large, stout elastic 
ring will do, or two smaller rings looped together. Fasten 
a string to the elastic, and pass the string through the tube 
in the boat from the stern end ; hook the loop on the pro- 
peller wire into the elastic, and push the wooden plug into 
the tube so that the screw is clear of the rudder; draw the 
elastic by the string through the other end of the tube, and 
hook the wire in the other plug into it ; take off the string, 
and push the plug into its place. You must cut the plug 
away so that the handle can catch in the teeth cut in the 
tube. Now the boat is ready for use. 

To use it wind up the elastic by the handle at the end 

52 



A BOAT WITH A SCREW PROPELLER 

of the tube, holding the screw firmly with the other hand. 
As soon as wound up enough set the rudder and put the boat 
into the water ; release the screw, and the boat will go until 
the elastic is quite unwound. The distance it will travel 
will be regulated by the extent to which the elastic is wound 
up. 



Chapter VI 

PADDLE-WHEELS FOR A SMALL BOAT 

SEVERAL years ago, while staying with friends who lived 
in New Jersey, on the banks of one of the prettiest rivers 
in the State, I conceived the idea of making for myself a 
side-wheel paddle-boat ; and going to work with what I had 
on hand, succeeded so well in my undertaking that I wish 
to let my young friends enjoy the same privilege. I give 
a working sketch for a boat of three-feet beam and under, 
so that my readers may follow measurements and have one 
for themselves. (Fig. i). 

Applicable to Any Boat 

A particularly good feature of this contrivance is that 
the whole machinery may be applied to any boat, and may 




Fig. I 

54 



PADDLE-WHEELS FOR A SMALL BOAT 

be taken off and put on at will, and without doing either 
boat or wheel any damage. Any boy with some mechani- 
cal ability, and at very little expense, can make and run 
his own paddle-boat, and if he derives as much pleasure 
from the making and working of it as I did, he will be 
amply repaid for all his trouble. 



Hubs and Spokes 

The first thing to do is to go to the carpenter and get 
six strips of pine one inch thick by two inches wide, and 




.-O 



Fig. 2 

SHOWING FRAME IN WHICH THE WHEELS ARE TO WORK 
' K, crank; 0,0, bearings. (See also O, Fig. 5). 
The frame is resting upon a section of a boat 

make a frame (Fig. 2), fastening together with two-inch 
screws — galvanized screws are preferred in every case, as 

55 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



they do not rust. Then cut four pieces of three-quarter or 
one-inch stuff, circular-shaped, eight inches in diameter 
(Figs. 3, A, and 6, A) for the hubs of the wheels, and fasten 
with one-and-three-quarter-inch or two-inch screws the 




Fig. 3 

SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF WHEEL AND SIZES OF PIECES 

spokes, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H (Figs. 3 and 6, for lengths 
and shape of ends), strengthening with an ordinary thirty- 
inch hoop (I, Fig. 3). 

Paddles 

Now make the paddles (J, Fig. 4) of one-inch pine, five 
inches square, and fasten with two-inch screws, being care- 

56 



PADDLE-WHEELS FOR A SMALL BOAT 

ful to have the circular pieces, A, on the outside of the 
wheels (see Fig. 4). Now the wheels are all ready for the 
crank (K, Fig. 2) and crank plates (L, Fig. 6). Have the 
blacksmith make the crank of iron bar three-quarters of 
an inch in diameter in the same shape as shown in K (Fig. 
2), with ends flattened to fit the plate L, which should be 
fastened to spoke B (Fig. 6) and kept in place by iron 
pin N, run through staples or screw-eyes in spokes C and 
D (Fig. 6). Be careful to screw this plate and pin on the 
inside of the outside spokes of each wheel (see L and N,. 





6" 

1 1 


P 










.A 


Ar^ 




O c 


t 1 

xJs 

5" 


'■ K 


j 






V 


1 

J 













Fig. 4 



SHOWING ON LEFT-HAND SIDE A SECTION OF THE WHEEL IN PADDLE-BOX 

AND ON THE OTHER SIDE THE PADDLE-BOX WITHOUT A WHEEL; THE 

WHOLE IN POSITION ON THE BOAT 

K, crank; P, wooden handle to be fixed around the center part of the crank 



Fig. 4), thereby making crank and wheels as one article 
and to work together; the better the crank fits the plates 
the more steady will it be and easily worked. 
•5 57 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Assembling the Parts 

Now we fasten all this to the frame by bearings, each one 
made of two strips of wood one inch thick by four inches 
long, with a one-inch hole bored through between layers; 
then, unscrewing the pieces, screw the bottom piece to the 
frame, lift the wheels and crank, and place the ends on the 
bearing, screwing the top one over the axle to the bottom 
one (see O, Fig. 5). 

We now have the machinery ready for working. Let 
us turn to the paddle-boxes (see Fig. 5). These are made 
like the arch frames used by builders as guides in making 





> 


O 








M u 




39" 




u " 


1 — c 


°ko-^ 







Fig. 5 

SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF PADDLE-BOX 

O, crank-bearing fastened to frame, as shown in Fig. 2 

brick archways, but not so heavy. They should be cov- 
ered either with common unbleached muslin and painted 
or with thin oil-cloth such as is used for covering tables 

58 



PADDLE-WHEELS FOR A SMALL BOAT 



and shelves, and which can be bought for a very small 
sum. The later material is much the better. Fasten 
these boxes to the frames, and the paddle-box is ready. 

All this work may be done at the house or barn, and after- 
ward fixed on the boat, that part of the frame (Fig. 2) 
marked "Aft" being placed between the after-rowlocks; 



N 



JVmameter 




C| @ 



3LONQ 



Fig. 6 

SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF WHEEL, BUT ON A LARGER SCALE THAN IN FIG. 3 

L, crank-plate; N, iron pin 

this will bring the wheels in the right place on ordinary 
boats, and the crank will be in about the right position 
for working. 

Cost 



The whole make-up should cost less than ten dollars, 
the principal expense being for crank, pin, plate, lumber, 
and screws, all of which should not cost above three dollars. 
The rest is to be done by yourself ; and the more carefully 
it is made, the more satisfactory will it prove. 

59 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Hand -power 

The propelling power will be "hand-power" — that is, you 
will work the wheels by pulling the crank as you sit on the 
seat of the boat facing the bow. The movement is some- 
thing like rowing. As it would be uncomfortable to take 
hold of the bare iron crank, a covering should be made for 
it. This may be done by whittling two pieces of wood 
(Fig. 4, P) half round, grooving the flat side of each so 




Fig. 7 



WHEEL MADE FROM A CARRIAGE-WHEEL 

S, hub plate, with square hole to receive the end of the crank 



that the two will fit on to the crank K (Fig. 4), and fasten- 
ing with stout cord, which, if wound neatly from end to 
end, will make a nice soft handle. A more steamer-like 

60 



PADDLE-WHEELS FOR A SMALL BOAT 

effect may be obtained by putting up a piece of stove-pipe 
or leader about four feet long. The whole apparatus may 
be taken off and put on by two boys at any time, and the 
boat need not be disfigured by nails or screws, as the frame 
can be easily tied to the gunwale of the boat. 

Another Way to Make Wheels 

Get the blacksmith or wheelwright to give or sell you a 
pair of old wheels without tire or rim. Then cut off each 
spoke the same length, so as to make the circumference of 
the wheel, when all are cut, forty- two inches. Plane down 
the side of the spoke which strikes the water first, and 
fasten the paddles of one-inch stuff with galvanized screws, 
as in Fig. 7. This time have the crank ends squared, and 
the round plate screwed in the end of the hub, and make 
boxes the same as for other wheels. 



Part III 
HOW TO MAKE REAL BOATS 



Chapter VII 

BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

OF all the things that a boy is interested in there is 
nothing more fascinating than boats, whether they are 
to row, paddle, or sail in, and, as many of the simple kinds 
are quite within the ability of a boy to make, he can take 
a great deal of pleasure in their construction. 

For the sea-shore and salt waterways the boats should 
be heavily constructed, and as this is usually beyond the 
average boy's ability, the sea-going dorys, surf -boats, and 
heavy sail-boats will be omitted, and those described and 
illustrated will be for use in fresh water, or on small enclosed 
salt waterways where the wind and tide are moderate. 

In making a boat it is not only necessary to have it float, 
but to construct it in such a manner that the joints will 
keep closed and the boards will not rip off if run on a snag 
or against a rocky shore. 

These are essential points in the proper construction of 
boats, and they might as well be learned by the amateur 
boat -builder when he is young, instead of constructing 
something for fun and having to learn the right way all 
over again when he is older and more serious work begins. 

In this chapter a few of the simpler forms of boats are 
shown, and the warning must be given at the start that the 

65 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

young shipwright should use the greatest care in con- 
structing a boat, not only for the natural pride they will take 
in making a good one, but for the still more important 
reason that the safety of all on board is dependent upon his 
skill and conscientious work. 

Punt and Scow 

A punt with a flat bottom is about the easiest and 
safest boat for a boy to make and own, for it is straight in 
construction and difficult to upset if not overloaded. As 
both ends are the same it can be rowed or poled forward or 
backward, and the overhanging ends allow plenty of seating 
room. 

The punt shown in Fig. 4 is fifteen feet long, nineteen 
inches deep, and four feet wide. The ends cut under 
twenty inches, and at one end a skag and rudder can be 
arranged as shown in Fig. 2. 

The sides are made of two boards, one of six and the 
other of a twelve-inch width, and the added thickness of 
the bottom boards make the total depth of the sides nine- 
teen inches. The wider boards are the lower ones, and they 
are fastened together near both ends and at the middle 
with battens as shown in Fig. 4. The middle battens are 
six inches wide, and into the upper ends of them the row- 
lock pins are driven. The bottom planking should not be 
more than four or five inches wide, and it is securely 
nailed to the edges of the sides and to an inner keel-strip 
running the entire length of the bottom as shown in Fig. 3. 

The wood should be very dry so that it will not shrink 

66 



ha. 1 





/^/G 2 




f^/GS 



PUNT AND SCOW 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

afterwards and open the seams. Along the edges, and 
before the planking is laid or nailed on, smear white-lead, 
and lay one or two thicknesses of lamp-wicking on the lead, 
so that when the ends of the planking are driven down 
it makes a water-tight joint. Where the planks butt up 
against the other planking, the joints are to be generously 
smeared with white-lead and laid with a string of the lamp- 
wicking. Begin at one end and work towards the other, 
having first attached the end planks. Fig. 3 A. 

The method of attaching the skag is also shown in Fig. 
3, and if the punt shows a tendency to swing around in the 
water and not mind the oars or rudder, a keel three inches 
wide may be attached on the bottom of the punt to run from 
the forward end of the straight bottom back to the end of 
the skag. 

The bottom planking is to be attached at both sides and 
to the inner keel-strip with galvanized nails. Do not use 
ordinary nails as they will rust in a short time, and the 
only ones that are of use are the regular galvanized boat 
nails that can be had at most hardware stores, and always 
at a ship-chandler's or from a boat-builder. 

A rudder can be made and hung at one end of the boat 
as shown in Fig. 2. 

A scow (Fig. 1) will be found the easiest of all boats to con- 
struct, but at the same time the hardest to row, since both 
the ends are blunt and vertical. A scow is for use in 
shallow water and is poled generally instead of being rowed. 
It is built in a similar manner to the punt, but the ends are 
not cut under. A good size to make the scow for general 
use will be fourteen feet long, eighteen inches deep, and four 

68 



BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

feet wide. It may be provided with two or three seats, and 
when complete both the punt and scow should receive two 
or three good coats of paint. 

A Sharpy 

It is not a difficult matter to make a sharpy like the one 
shown in Fig. 5, but care must be taken in its construction 
to insure good unions and tight joints. 

Cedar, white-wood, pine, or cypress are the best woods of 
which to build small boats, and wide boards can be had at 
almost any lumber-yard. White cedar is somewhat more 
difficult to get than the other woods, but if possible it should 
be used. 

To make this sharpy the proper size for a boy's use, ob- 
tain two boards fifteen or sixteen inches wide, fourteen feet 
long, and seven-eighths of an inch thick, planed on both 
sides and as free from knots as possible. If the boards can- 
not be had fifteen inches wide, then batten two boards 
together with strips just as plain board doors are made. 
Before they are fastened, however, smear the joint edges 
with white-lead and embed a string of lamp-wicking through 
the middle. Use plenty of white-lead, and after the boards 
are pressed together and fastened the surplus lead can 
be scraped from both sides of the joint and saved for other 
joints. 

From a piece of hard -wood cut a stem eighteen inches 
long and four inches wide, with bevelled planes, as shown 
in Fig. 6. A section or end view of this post will appear 
like Fig. 6 A. Against the cut-in sides of this post the bow 

69 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

ends of the side boards are to be attached with screws or 
galvanized boat nails. 

The long side boards are to be cut at bow and stern as 
shown at Fig. 7 A and B. The bow recedes three inches 
and the stern is cut under thirty-four inches. Attach the 
bow ends of the boards to the stem-piece or post so that 
the top of the sides will be seven-eighths of an inch below 
the flat top of the post. If properly done you will then 
have a V-shaped affair resembling a snow-plough, which 
must be bent and formed in the shape of a boat. 

From a board seven - eighths of an inch thick cut a 
spreader ten inches wide, forty-eight inches long at one side, 
and forty-two inches at the other, as shown in Fig. 8. Ar- 
range this between the boards about midway from bow to 
stern, so that the bottom of the spreader is flush with the 
bottom of the sides ; then draw in the rear ends of the boards 
and tie them temporarily with a piece of rope. 

Drive a nail into the edge of each board near the end, to 
prevent the rope slipping off, for if it should do so the 
boards would fly apart and might break away from the 
stem-piece. 

In order to draw in the ends to the proper position, in- 
sert a short stick between the ropes and twist it around 
until the rope is wound up; then if the end is not in far 
enough, slip another rope around the ends of the boards, 
and after releasing the first rope insert the stick and con- 
tinue the twisting until the ends of the side boards are 
twenty-one inches apart. Before this bending process is 
begun, it would be well to pour a kettleful of boiling water 
over each side board to limber them, for dry boards are 

70 




/V6 9 



A SHARPY 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

stiff and will not bend easily without checking or cracking. 
If it is possible to steam the boards they will yield still 
better to the bending process. 

The stern-plank is cut in the same shape as the spreader, 
but it is curved or crowned at the top, where it is twenty- 
three inches long, while at the bottom it measures twenty 
inches. It is six inches wide at the ends and nine inches 
at the middle, and is attached to the ends of the sides with 
boat nails while the tension-rope is still in place. 

An inner keel is then cut six inches wide and pointed at the 
bow end, where it is attached to the lower edges of the sides 
at the bow and flush with them. The planking or bottom 
boards should fit snugly to it and to the edges of the sides. 

A lap six inches long and seven-eighths of an inch deep 
is cut in the bottom of the spreader at the middle. In this 
the inner keel will fit, and after the first two or three bottom 
boards are nailed on at the bow end the frame of the sharpy 
will appear as shown in Fig. 9. The spreader and stern- 
plank will give the sides a flare which will have a tendency 
also to curve the bottom of the boat slightly from bow to 
stern. The bottom planks are four inches wide, of clear 
wood, and must not have tongue and grooved edges, but 
should be plain so that the white-lead and lamp-wicking 
will make a tight joint when the planks are driven up snug 
to each other. 

Drive all nails carefully so as not to split the planking or 
sides, and as a precaution a small bit or gimlet should be 
used to make the start for the nail -hole. 

A seat ten inches wide is fastened at the middle of the 
boat, over the spreader, and seats may also be arranged 

72 



BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

at the bow and stern, where they rest on cleats that are 
screwed fast to the sides. 

A short keel or skag is fastened to the under side of the 
sharpy and extends from about under the middle seat aft 
to the stern-post. A V-shaped p'ece is let in where the 
stern is cut under as shown in Fig. 10. This keel prevents 
the sharpy from turning about quickly and serves to steady 
her when rowing, as well as making a deeper stern-post 
to which a rudder may be hung as shown in Fig. 2. Six 
inches to the rear of the middle seat plates of wood six 
inches wide are attached to the sides of the sharpy, as shown 
in the illustration (Fig. 5), and on the tops of these oar- 
locks or pins are inserted after the usual fashion. 

At the outside of the sides and an inch below the top edge 
a gunwale-strip is made fast, and with a ring in the bow 
for a painter and a pair of oars the sharpy is ready for use. 

Of course it should be thoroughly painted. Three or 
four successive coats of paint should be applied to a boat 
the first time it is painted, and before using, it should be 
launched, half filled with water, and allowed to stand for a 
few days so that the joints will swell and close properly. 
A mast six or eight feet high and a leg-of-mutton sail will 
enable a boy to sail before the wind in a quiet breeze, but 
rough - weather sailing should not be attempted in this 
style of open boat. 

A Rowing Dory of the Old Type 

A dory (Fig. 11), is somewhat similar to a sharpy but 
has higher sides and a narrower bottom, therefore it draws 
more water than a wide, flat -bottomed sharpy. 

6 73 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



A boy can make a dory from twelve to sixteen feet long, 
but a fourteen-foot dory will be quite large enough to hold 
from four to six boys comfortably and safely. The sides 
should be twenty-four inches high and the bottom twenty- 
four inches across amidships. 

The bottom is made from four six-inch planks battened 
across as shown in Fig. 12. The joints are leaded before 




/=-/G // 




the boards are brought together, and the fastenings are of 
galvanized nails clinched at the inside. The battens, of 
course, are on the inside, but the nail-heads are on the out- 
side or bottom of the boat. 

A stem and stern-piece (Fig. 13 A and B) are cut from 

74 



BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

hard -wood, and to these the wooden sides are made fast 
at both ends. The bow and stern of a dory have more of 
a rake than those of a sharpy as may be seen in Fig. n. 
The top of the bow extends out beyond the bottom at least 
from fifteen to twenty inches, while the stern overhangs the 
keel about twelve inches. The sides flare out nine inches at 
both sides amidships, so that the total width of beam is 
forty-two inches for a dory fourteen feet long. 

Planks sixteen feet long are necessary with which to 
make this dory, for when they are sprung out at the sides 
they take up on the length. They can be six inches wide, 
and are made fast to ribs along the inside^ of the boat and 
attached with galvanized boat nails. 

In Fig. 14 an amidships section of the dory is shown and 
the position of the seat is located. Along the top of the 
sides, to cap them and the upper ends of the ribs, rails two 
inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick are made 
fast with boat nails. These rails should be of hard-wood, 
and they should be sprung into place and securely fast- 
ened. 

A dory of this description makes an ideal fishing -boat 
where the water is rough, since it can be rowed either for- 
ward or backward. 

A Sailing Sharpy 

A rowing sharpy can be converted into a sail -boat by 
partially decking it over, making a mast -step, and pro- 
viding it with a lee-board if a centre-board cannot be ar- 
ranged in the middle of the hull. Fig. 18. 

The half -deck will keep out the water that might splash 

75 




A SAILING SHARPY 



BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

over the sides or come over the bow and stern, and the row- 
boat features need not be altered nor the seats removed, 
as the rib and brace work for the deck can easily be fitted 
and fastened over the seats, and so give additional strength 
to the deck. 

Just behind the front seat and at the forward edge of the 
back seat cross-ribs are made fast to the sides of the sharpy. 
Between these, and eight inches from the sides of the boat, 
additional braces are sprung into place and securely at- 
tached at the ends, and provided with short cross -braces 
as shown in Fig. 15. The deck planking is nailed to these 
ribs and the seats under them give a substantial support 
to both the ribs and deck. The opening or cockpit will be 
six feet long and varying in width, as the side decks are 
eight inches wide and follow the line of the boat's sides. 
Amidships it should measure about twenty -eight inches. 

The braces and ribs are made of three-quarter-inch spruce 
boards five or six inches wide, and to bend them in the seg- 
ment of a circle (as they will have to be for the side-ribs) 
pour hot water over two of them and place the ends on boxes 
with heavy stones at the middle to bend them down to the 
required curve. Allow them to remain in this position for 
several hours to dry in the sun ; they may then be cut and 
fitted to the boat. The decking is done with narrow strips 
of pine, cypress, or cedar one inch and a half wide and three- 
quarters of an inch in thickness. They are bent to conform 
to the side lines of the boat, and if they are fitted nicely and 
leaded the deck should be water-tight after it receives varnish 
or paint. 

If straight boards are employed in place of the narrow 

77 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

planking the deck can be covered with canvas and first given 
a coat of oil, then several successive thin coats of paint. The 
canvas should be tacked down over the outer edge of the 
boat and to the inner edge of the cockpit. A gunwale-strip 
an inch square is to be nailed along the top edge on both 
sides of the boat, and one inch below the top of the deck nail 
a guard rail along each side. 

To finish the cockpit arrange a combing in place to pro- 
ject four inches above the deck, and make the boards fast to 
the inner side of the ribs with screws as shown in the illustra- 
tion of the hull of sailing sharpy, Fig. 15. 

Ten inches back from the bow-post bore a hole two inches 
and a half in diameter so that a mast will fit securely in place. 
The hole should extend through the deck and front seat, and 
a step-block with a hole in it to receive the foot of the mast 
must be nailed fast to the bottom of the boat. The hole in 
this block is oblong, and the foot of the mast should be cut 
on two sides so as to fit in the block as shown in Fig. 16. 

Spruce or clear pine sticks are to be dressed and planed 
for the mast and boom, the mast measuring fourteen feet 
high by two inches and a half at the base, and the boom 
thirteen feet long by two inches in diameter, both tapering 
near the end. 

The rudder is eighteen inches long, including the post, and 
ten inches high. It is fastened to a post of hard-wood three 
inches wide and seven-eighths of an inch thick. At the top 
of this an iron strap is fastened to hold the tiller as shown in 
Fig. 1 7 A. The rudder is hung to the stern of the boat with 
pins and sockets, as shown in Fig. 17 B, so that if it becomes 
necessary the rudder may be unshipped by lifting it out 

78 



BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

of the sockets or eyes. The rudder is fastened to the post 
with galvanized-iron pins ten inches long and three-eighths 
of an inch in diameter driven through snug holes bored in 
the wood as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 17 B. 

It is impossible to hold a boat on the wind without a 
centre-board, but as this sharpy has none a lee-board will 
be required to keep her from drifting leeward. Fig. 18. 

This board can be made five feet long, thirty inches wide, 
and hung over the lee side when running on the wind, where 
ropes and cleats will hold it in place. The board may be 
made of three planks banded together at the rear end with 
a batten, and at the forward end it is strapped across with 
bands of iron as shown in Fig. 18. 

With a sail of twilled or heavy unbleached muslin this 
boat may be driven through the water at five or six miles 
an hour, and two boys can have a great deal of fun out of 
her. Care should be exercised in handling the boat ; and be 
sure to reef the sail in case of a strong breeze. 

A Centre-board Sharpy 

When making a sharpy to sail in, a trunk and centre-board 
should be built when the keel is laid so that the cumbersome 
and unhandy lee-board may be done away with. The cen- 
tre-board is housed in the trunk, through which it can be 
raised or lowered as occasion requires. 

The arrangement of the trunk in the boat is shown in 
Fig. 19, and it is located so that the front of the trunk is 
three feet from the bow. For a centre-board one inch and 
a quarter in thickness the trunk should be one inch anc} 

■ 79 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

three-quarters wide between sides, five feet long, and eigh- 
teen inches high. It is made of tongue-and-grooved boards 
one inch and one-eighth in thickness, and these are attached 
by stout screws to posts one inch and three-quarters square 
at bow and stern. The trunk is mounted on the keel, set in 
white-lead, and securely fastened with screws. A slot is cut 
in the keel the same size as the inside opening of the trunk — 
that is, two inches wide and about five feet long. The bot- 
tom planking is butted against the sides of the trunk at the 
middle of the boat as shown in Fig. 20. 

An inner keel is laid over the bottom planking through 
the centre of the boat from stem to stern, and where it fits 
around the trunk it is cut out. Both the inner and outer 
keels are six inches wide and the exposed edges are bevelled 
with a plane. A sectional or end view of the trunk and its 
location in the keels is shown in Fig. 20, where the shading 
and lettering will designate each part. 

The centre-board is four feet and nine inches long, thirty 
inches wide at the back, and twenty-four inches at the front. 
It is attached to the trunk with a hard-wood pin located 
near the forward lower end, and when it is drawn up it will 
appear as shown in Fig. 2 1 A, but when lowered it will look 
like Fig. 21 B. 

The centre-board is made of hard-wood, several boards of 
which are pinned together with galvanized-iron rods three- 
eighths of an inch in diameter and driven through from edge 
to edge of the boards in snug holes made with a long bit or 
auger. The rods are riveted at both ends over washers to 
prevent the boards from working apart. 

It would be better to let a boat-builder or carpenter make 

80 




l OUTER KEEL 
A CENTRE-BOARD SHARPY 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

this board the proper size and shape to fit the trunk, for it is 
the most difficult thing to construct about a boat and some- 
what beyond the ability of many boys. A large galvanized 
eye and a rope made fast below the middle of the board at 
the rear edge will provide the means for raising and lower- 
ing the centre-board. 

The deck ribs and the planking are put in the same as 
described for the sailing sharpy. 

A Proa 

In the South Sea Islands the natives dig out the trunk of 
a tree, rig a lateen sail on a single stick, and arrange a coun- 
ter-balance on the end of two poles in the form of a catama- 
ran. With this rude contrivance they can outsail anything 
in the shape of a small boat such as our types of cat-boats 
and sharpies. 

These queer craft are called proas, and a modified 
type that a boy can make is shown in the illustration 
Fig. 22. 

This is a perfectly safe boat, and as it lies close on the 
water a great deal of fun can be had with one in compara- 
tively smooth waterways. 

To make the hull get two ten-inch planks sixteen feet long 
and spring them five feet from either end so that they come 
together at both ends and are separated fifteen inches along 
the middle for five or six feet as shown in Fig. 23. Between 
the sides place four or five spreaders, two of which should be 
stout enough to receive the bolts that will hold the two cross- 
braces or outriggers. Set a step-block for the mast, then 

82 




fi^^l Ik II 



nz3 



/^<?<23 



V 



A PROA 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

plank the deck and bottom, using plenty of white-lead and 
lamp-wicking between the joints. 

The cross-braces or outriggers are of two-by-four-inch 
clear spruce six feet long, and their outer ends are bolted to 
a solid spruce timber twelve feet long, four inches wide, and 
ten inches deep. They should be sharpened at both ends 
with an adze, draw-knife, or a chisel and plane. 

A mast twelve feet long and three inches in diameter is 
stepped seven feet from the bow, and to it a lateen rig is 
lashed fast having the gaff eighteen feet long and the boom 
fifteen feet in length. 

A block and tackle at the bow will pay off the angle and 
another at the stern will regulate the position of the sail. 

Cross-wires for braces may extend under the short decking 
to steady the outrigger and keep it from racking the braces, 
and three or four narrow planks can be laid across the braces 
close to the large boat on which the boy and a friend or two 
may sit when sailing. 

A rudder may be attached to the stern of the large boat, 
as shown in Fig. 17, or an oar can be used to steer with. 

Paint the boats any desired color, and for the first time 
give them at least three or four thin coats not less than two 
days apart, so that one will dry thoroughly before the next 
one is laid on. Never put thick or gummy paint on a boat ; 
thin it down and apply two coats rather than one thick one. 

A Swallow 

Perhaps the safest kind of a sailing-craft next to a cata- 
maran is a swallow with a broad beam and flat at both bow 

84 



BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

and stern. There are various forms of the half -rater, but 
the one shown in Fig. 24 is easy to construct and requires 
less careful fitting and joining than the hulls with pointed 
bows and long, overhanging sterns. 

In general construction this hull is similar to the punt, 
and when putting it together the description for the building 
of the punt must be borne in mind. 




Obtain two clear cedar planks sixteen feet long and from 
fourteen to sixteen inches wide. Four feet from either end 
begin to round the lower edges of these side boards. Cut 
two spreaders five feet and six inches long and make them 

85 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

fast four feet from the ends of the sides as shown at Fig. 25. 
Between these spreaders attach an inner keel in the forward 
end of which an opening has been made. The keel is of 
hard-wood eight inches wide and the opening is three inches 
and a half in width and four feet and eight inches long. 

A centre-board trunk is made and fitted into this opening 
as described for the sailing sharpy. Then braces are fast- 
ened between the sides and trunk as shown at Fig. 26. 

Two bevelled hard-wood bow and stern pieces are cut as 
shown at Fig. 27. The ends of the boards are sprung in and 
attached to the ends of these pieces, and between them and 
the spreaders two more boards are fastened as indicated by 
the lines of nail-heads in Fig. 26. At the bow just ahead of 
the forward long cross-piece or spreader step the mast, and 
at the stern make the rudder-post trunk, taking care to use 
plenty of white-lead and lamp-wick so as to render the 
joints water-tight. Put a line of braces through the middle 
of the frame, then begin at the bow and plank the bottom 
with boards not more than three or four inches wide. 

With the planking on and the braces, spreaders, and trunk 
in position the frame will appear as shown in Fig. 28. The 
deck planking is of strips seven-eighths of an inch thick and 
three inches wide. Begin at the middle of the boat by lay- 
ing down a strip six inches wide by one inch and a quarter 
in thickness. Drive the deck planking close to this and 
smear the points with white-lead in which the lamp-wicking 
is embedded. Make all the fastenings with galvanized boat 
nails and drive the heads well into the wood with a nail- 
punch so they can be puttied and covered from the action 
of the water. An outer flat keel is laid along the bottom 

86 




/ = '/G2S' 




/^sG *8 



A LARK 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

of the hull from the forward part of the cockpit or about 
under the mast. This leads aft to where the stern begins 
to round up and there it is stopped. 

This keel is attached with galvanized or brass screws, and 
a generous number are driven through the keel into the 
bottom edges of the centre-board trunk. 

The rudder is made from galvanized sheet-iron as shown 
at Fig. 29, and is let into a one-and-a-quarter-inch round iron 
rudder-post and riveted fast. Just above the rudder-blade 
a collar of iron is welded to the post and this bears against 
the bottom of the boat. To prevent the rudder from drop- 
ping down a pin is passed through a hole in the post close to 
the deck and a large washer made fast to the deck will pre- 
vent the pin from chafing the wood. 

Have the top of the post made with a square shank so 
that a tiller may fit over it and be held in position by a nut. 

The rudder-blade should be twenty-six inches long and 
twelve inches wide. 

The mast is fifteen feet long, cut from a four-inch spruce 
stick with draw-knife and plane. The boom is fifteen feet 
long, cut from a two-and-one-half-inch spruce stick, and the 
gaff is eleven feet long. 

Extending out from the mast and attached to the deck 
is a short bowsprit five feet and six inches long. This is of 
two-by-three-inch spruce with the sharp corners rounded 
off beyond the end of the boat. 

A wire forestay and two shrouds lead from mast-head to 
bowsprit and to both sides of the boat as shown in Fig. 24. 

The main-sheet is seven feet on the mast, ten feet on the 
gaff, fourteen feet at the foot or on the boom, and eighteen 

88 



BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

feet on the leach. The jib is eleven feet on the forestay, 
five feet at the foot, and ten feet on the leach. The blocks 
are all of galvanized iron or wood, and three-eighth-inch 
Manila-rope should be used for the halyards and sheets. 

This swallow will ride well on the water, and if properly 
rigged it should be a very speedy boat. 

A Power-boat 

A novel feature for the propulsion of a flat-bottom boat 
or punt is shown in Fig. 30. Two small paddle-wheels 
attached to one shaft are hung out over the stern, and by 
means of a sprocket on the shaft connected to another and 
larger one on the seat frame the wheels are turned by the 
boys who mount the seats and work the pedals. 

The punt is fifteen feet long on the deck line and six feet 
wide. The side boards are twelve inches wide, and with the 
thickness of the deck and bottom planking it will make the 
total depth about fourteen inches. Through the middle a 
strengthening rib is run the same size and thickness as the 
outer sides as shown in Fig. 31. This gives an additional 
rib to nail the sheathing boards to and also an anchorage to 
which the uprights forming the seat frame can be made fast 
with bolts. 

The outriggers that suspend the wheels are of spruce two 
inches thick and three inches wide. They are bolted to the 
deck and at the outer end U-notches are cut for the axle of 
the wheels to fit into and capped with iron straps such as 
shown in Fig. 32. A blacksmith will make these for you 
from strap-iron an eighth of an inch thick and two inches 
7 89 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



wide. They should be bolted on when the wheels are in 

position, for they not only have to support the weight of the 

wheels but also stand the action of the water against them. 

The wheels are each twenty-four inches in diameter and 







BOATS WHICH BOYS CAN BUILD 

two feet long, and are made from wood seven-eighths of 
an inch in thickness. Seven blades eight inches wide are 
screwed fast to the sides or held in place with long, galvan- 
ized boat nails. 

The axle is of spruce two inches square, and the wheel 
sides are provided with square holes through which the axle 
is driven as shown in Fig. 33. The ends of the axle are band- 
ed with iron, or copper wire may be wound round them to 
prevent their splitting. Into the ends half -inch round iron 
pins are driven which revolve in the bearings. 

The seat-frame is thirty inches high and made from spruce 
rails three inches wide and one inch and a half in thickness. 
On the middle upright a large and small gear wheel are 
arranged on an axle with the cranks and pedals, and on the 
front post a small wheel is attached so that tandem power 
may be used on the paddle-wheels or one boy alone can 
work the boat. A rod and handle-bars may be arranged for 
the rear boy to grasp, and with a socket and set-screw it 
can be raised or lowered at will. 

The forward bars have a cross-piece of iron at the foot of 
the vertical rod. This is two feet long, and from the ends of 
it running aft wires connect with the ends of a tiller for 
operating the rudder. 

The rudder is hung between the wheels on a skag which 
is the rear extension of a short keel that should be nailed 
fast to hold the punt steady on the water. 

Four canopy poles may be arranged to fit into sockets at 
the sides, and an awning six by ten feet can be supported 
over the machinery of the boat to keep off sun and rain. 

This is a genuine boy-power boat, and as the wheels are 

91 



BOATIN G BOOK FOR BOYS 

substantially large and strong it can be driven over the 
water at quite a good speed. While it takes two boys to 
properly run it, that is not the boat's capacity, for she will 
easily carry from four to six boys, their lunch-baskets, or a 
one-day camping outfit for a visit up the river or lake. 






Chapter VIII 

CATAMARANS 
A Rowing Catamaran 

FOR safety on the water, as nearly as safety can be 
assured, there is nothing to compare with a catamaran, 
for they are practically "non-capsizable," and if not damaged 
to the leaking-point one or the other of the two boats will 
float and hold up several persons. Fig. i gives a good idea 
for a rowing catamaran that any boy can make from some 
boards and light timbers. It is provided with a seat and 
oar-locks so that the occupant may be seated above the 
water far enough to row easily. 

The boats are fourteen feet long, eighteen inches wide, and 
fourteen inches deep, including the bottom and deck. 

Pine, white-wood, cedar, or cypress, three-quarters of an 
inch thick and planed on both sides, will be necessary from 
which to construct the boats. At the bow the ends of the 
sides are attached to a stern-piece of hard-wood as shown 
in Fig. 2. Having poured boiling water on the forward 
ends, they may be drawn around a spreader sixteen inches 
long and twelve inches wide provided with two U-cuts as 
shown in Fig. 3. These are placed at the bottom, so that any 
water may be run to one end of a boat where it can be 
pumped out. 

93 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 





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The first spreader is placed three feet from the bow, and 
three or four more of them should be fastened between the 
sides as shown in Fig. 4, the last one being three feet from 
the stern where the sides begin to curve up to the upper 
edge of the stern and to the deck. 

The bottom is of three-inch pine or white-wood boards 
seven-eighths of an inch thick and well leaded in the joints 
and along the edges where the bottom and top boards join 

94 



CATAMARANS 



the sides. Before the top or deck is placed on, the interior 
of the boats should have two or three good coats of paint. 

Three cross-stringers of spruce two and one-half by four 
inches and six feet long are securely attached to the boats, 
and on these the deck of four-inch boards is made fast as 
the illustration will show. Between the middle and forward 
stringer, at the ends, two boards are attached on which the 
row -locks may be fastened. These boards are eight or nine 
inches wide and cut away at the front so that they are not 
more than two or three inches wide. 

The high ends are braced with round iron braces as shown 
in the illustration, and where the oar-locks are mounted a 
short plate of wood is screwed fast to the inside of each 
piece. 

Near the front cross-piece a seat is built and braced with 
a board. With another boy at the stern sitting on the 
deck this catamaran will be well balanced and will prove 
very seaworthy, as well as a light boat to row. 

A Sailing Catamaran 

It is almost impossible to upset a sailing catamaran even 
in a gale, and for boys a boat of this kind affords a great 
deal of comparatively safe pleasure. 

A catamaran is about the easiest sort of a boat to make, 
and no matter in what locality one lives there is always 
material at hand from which to make one as the wood is 
similar to that used for house construction. 

Fig. 5 shows a side elevation of a safe catamaran, and in 
Fig. 6 the deck plan is shown. In Fig. 7 an elevation view 

95 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

of the stern shows the arrangement of the boats, deck tim- 
bers, and rudders. 

The boats are fifteen feet long, eighteen inches wide at the 
middle, and two feet deep uniformly from bow to stern ex- 
cept for a short distance at the bow where the keel rounds up. 

They are in the form of a V, and at the ends the angle be- 
comes more acute, so that at the stem and stern the lines are 
vertical. 

Four feet from both ends the deck line begins to curve as 
shown in Fig. 6, and in Fig. 8 the cross-braces are shown. 
They are cut in at the bottom to slip over the keel and to 
them the sheathing planks are made fast. 




96 



CATAMARANS 



In Fig. 8 the curved stem-piece and one side of planking 
is shown, and it indicates also where the curved stem-piece 
is joined to the keel, which extends in a straight line to the 
stern of the boats. 

The keel is of hard-wood one inch and a quarter thick and 
six inches wide. The cross-braces or spreaders are of pine 
or other soft wood seven-eighths of an inch thick and made 
up of three pieces of wood with the grain running vertically. 

The sheathing is of pine, cedar, or cypress three-quarters 
of an inch thick, planed on both sides, and three or four 
inches wide. Each board should be given a priming coat of 
paint before it is nailed to the braces, and where the planks 
are edged together white-lead and lamp-wick should be em- 
ployed for calking. Galvanized boat nails are to be used 
for all the fastenings, but screws may be employed where it 
is necessary to have a very secure joint. 

The cross-pieces that fasten the boats together are bolted 
fast by means of long bolts that pass through the timbers 
and deck and into stout pieces of wood that are nailed fast 
to the upper part of the spreaders as shown at A in Fig. 8. 
The boats are decked over with the three-quarter-inch plank- 
ing, and to insure an absolutely tight deck the wood may be 
treated to a thick coat of paint and covered with canvas 
which is pressed down well into the paint and the edges 
tacked down over the sides of the boats. The canvas is then 
given a coat or two of paint and allowed to dry thoroughly, 
after which it can be sand-papered and finished with the 
desired shade of paint. 

Three spruce timbers eight feet long, three inches thick, 
and six inches wide are bored with holes at the ends where 

97 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

the bolts pass through them and into the boats. Running 
parallel to the boats three timbers are laid across the brace- 
timbers and on top of these the deck planking is nailed. 
These pieces are two and one-half by four inches, and ten 
feet long, and are bolted down with long slim bolts. 

The decking is formed of slats three-quarters of an 
inch thick and .four inches wide nailed down to these 
stringers. Spaces half an inch wide are left between each 
one. 

The bowsprit is of three-by-four-inch spruce left with its 
square corners for half its length but dressed round at the 
outer end. It is caught under the middle cross -brace where 
the end is bolted, and extending over the front piece it pro- 
jects four or five feet beyond the bow ends of the boats. 
With wire-cable the bowsprit end is stayed to the bow of 
each boat, where turn-buckles can be caught into eyes in 
the stem-posts. 

The mast is of spruce dressed from a four-inch spruce stick 
and slightly tapered at the top. It is fifteen feet long and 
stepped at the middle of the front cross-piece and on top of 
the bowsprit where it is held in place with a collar and iron 
braces as shown in the illustration. Fig. 5. 

Standing rigging of wire-cable stays the mast from the 
top to both ends of the front cross-piece as indicated by the 
dotted line in Fig. 7. 

Three short posts are made fast to the cross-pieces close 
to the decking, and holes bored in the tops of them will hold 
a safety-rope around the deck. 

The rudder-posts are of hard-wood one inch and a quarter 
thick and two inches and a half in width. They are three 

98 




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A SAILING CATAMARAN 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

feet long and to the upper end of each a strap of metal is 
arranged to receive the tiller as shown in Fig. 9. 

The tillers are of hard -wood three feet long and their inner 
ends are connected with a hard- wood stick by means of 
which the steering is done and both rudders operated at the 
same time. 

The rudders, made from two sheets of galvanized iron, 
are riveted fast to the rudder-posts and are twelve inches 
high and fifteen inches long. Pins on the posts fit into eyes 
attached to the stern-post of the boats, and in Fig. 10 the 
arrangement of rudders, tillers, and connecting-rod is shown. 

The main-sail is of twilled cotton that can be had at a dry- 
goods store for about ten cents a yard, and a rib should be 
sewed through the middle of each breadth to strengthen the 
cloth. The sail is nine feet and six inches on the mast, six 
feet on the gaff, thirteen feet on the boom, and fifteen feet 
on the leach. The jib, also of twilled cotton, is eleven feet 
and six inches on the forestay, eight feet across the foot, and 
eight feet and six inches on the leach. The blocks can be 
of galvanized iron but patent sheave-wood blocks are pref- 
erable. 

For the halyards Manila-rope three-eighths of an inch in 
diameter will be the right size, and a half-inch anchor-rope 
will be stout enough, since a catamaran does not tug as 
heavily on an anchor as does a boat. 

The wood -work of the boat and deck should be painted 
and the spars varnished. A pretty effect will be to paint 
the boat a rich olive green, with buff decks, and all the cross- 
pieces and deck planking in ivory white. 

The ordinary sailing rules will apply to the handling of a 

100 



CATAMARANS 



catamaran. With these wedge-shaped boats you can sail 
quite close to the wind, but if round-bottomed and shallower 
boats are used they will have to be provided with centre- 
boards. 

A Side-wheel Catamaran 

The rowing catamaran can easily be converted into a side- 
wheel boat by removing the middle slat of the deck and 
making an opening through which a chain will lead to a cog 
or sprocket wheel on an axle. 

At the outer side of each boat, between the middle and rear 
cross-braces, fasten two pieces of wood two inches wide and 
three inches high. Six or eight inches from the rear end 
make two U-cuts for a five-eighth-inch axle to fit into. At 
a blacksmith's obtain two old carriage or buggy wheels, and 
cut the spokes so that they will be fourteen inches long from 
the hub. Dress one side of each spoke flat, so that a paddle 
may be attached to it with screws. The paddles are of hard- 
wood, eight inches wide at the outer end, six at the inner end, 
and six inches deep. 

Have a blacksmith heat the ends of an axle and pound 
them square, then slip one hub over the iron, and with hard- 
wood wedges make it fast. The other wheel can be slipped 
on when the axle is in place and attached in a similar manner. 
It would be best to remove the old iron boxes from the hubs, 
so that a few screws can be driven through the hub and into 
the wedges to help in holding them securely in place. 

In Fig. n, which is a stern view of the rowing catamaran, 
one of the paddle-wheels is shown in place, and it also shows 
the location of the axle, the sprocket-wheel, and the chain 

IOI 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 




that leads to the large sprocket-wheel by means of which 
the axle is turned. 

An old bicycle chain and sprockets, together with the axle, 
cranks, and pedals, can be arranged on a frame, so that a 
saddle may be mounted the proper distance above the pedals. 
This arrangement is clearly shown in the illustration, which 
shows also the outrigger timbers at the stern, to which a 
sheet-iron rudder may be made fast. It is operated by a 
handle and bar, which turns the rudder by means of flexible 
wire-rope run through two deck-pulleys at the outer rear 
ends of the deck planking. The iron rod is held in place to 
the forward upright of the seat -frame with metal straps. 
At its lower end a wooden wheel having a groove is made 
fast, around which a wrap or two of the wire-cable is taken 
to hold the rudder steady, 

102 



Chapter IX 

HOUSE-BOATS AND RAFTS 
A House-punt 

A HOUSE-PUNT of very simple construction is shown in 
Fig. i. The punt is from sixteen to twenty-four feet 
long according to the size desired, but for a party of four 
boys it should be twenty-four feet long, eight feet wide, and 
two feet deep with a cabin eight feet high. 

The sides and middle rib should be of pine, spruce, or 
white -wood one inch and a quarter thick, free from sappy 
places and knots. If the boards cannot be had as long as 
twenty-four feet 'nor as wide as two feet, use two boards 
twelve inches wide and make one joint at the middle of the 
lower board and two in the upper board as shown in the 
drawing of the side elevation (Fig. 2). Six inches down 
from the top at either end and thirty inches in at the bottom 
cut the sides as shown so that the punt will have a shovel- 
nose at both ends and can be poled or sailed in either 
direction. Make a third or middle rib the same size as the 
side board. This is to be placed at the middle of the punt 
so as to receive the sheathing and deck planking. The 
arrangement of this middle rib and the side boards is shown 
in Fig. 3 and at A in Fig. 3. A batten is shown to which 

103 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

the upper and lower boards of a side are nailed fast. If the 
two boards are used it will be necessary to arrange these 
battens along the inside of each side about eighteen inches 
apart. They should be of tough wood five or six inches 
wide, an inch and a quarter thick, and two feet long. 

Galvanized boat nails should be used, and when driven 
in from the outside they should be clinched at the inside. 
Good boat nails are of malleable iron stiff enough to go 
through hard-wood but ductile enough to be turned over at 
the ends with a light hammer and quick, sharp blows. 

The sheathing and deck planking should be not less than 
four inches and not more than six inches in width, and before 
it is put on it should be well sun-dried to take out all moisture. 
It should then be given two good coats of paint on both sides 
to make it water-proof. 

Lay the sides and middle rib bottom up and begin to 
sheath from one end. Lumber sixteen feet long should be 
used, and this, when cut in half, will make two pieces from 
each length. If matched boards are used smear the edges 
with white-lead before the boards are driven together, but if 
straight-edge lumber is employed it will be necessary to lead 
and wick the joints. This is done by taking a piece of round 
iron one-quarter of an inch in diameter and eight inches long 
and bending it as shown at Fig. 4 A. Lay this on the flat 
edge of each board at the middle and heat the iron so as to 
form a groove as shown at Fig. 4 B. The wood, having been 
beaten in, forms a gully in which a string of lamp-wick can 
be laid as shown in Fig. 4 C. The groove must not be cut 
with a chisel for then its effect would be lost. The object 
of this treatment is that when the punt is in the water the 

104 




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A HOUSE-PUNT 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

joint swells forcing out the wood against the lamp-wick and 
making a water-tight joint. The edges of the wood and the 
wicking must be well smeared with white-lead in order to 
properly calk the joint. 

Between the middle rib and each side an inner keel should 
be arranged so that each plank can be nailed fast to it. This 
will act as an additional brace to hold the sheathing planks 
in place and make the bottom more rigid. This inner keel 
should extend from end to end of the punt, and short pieces 
may be laid inside the bevelled ends to lend added strength. 

At each end a spruce plank eight inches wide is made fast 
with long boat nails, first leading all the joints to make them 
water-tight. The deck planks are laid on the same as the 
sheathing, and to brace them from underneath, in the space 
between the middle rib and the sides, two-by-three-inch 
spruce rails are propped on short sticks which are nailed to 
the inner keel and to the rails as shown at Fig. 5. These 
under props should be arranged about eighteen inches apart, 
the entire length of the punt. Groove the upper edges of 
the end and side planks with the iron, then lay the lamp- 
wicking in, lead, and nail down the planking, taking care to 
put the nails in straight and true. When the punt is fin- 
ished give it several good coats of copper paint on the bottom 
and sides and several coats of good marine paint on the 
deck. 

To construct the cabin lay down the sill- joist of two-by- 
three-inch spruce, making the plan fourteen feet long and 
seven feet and eight inches wide (Fig. 6). To this nail 
the uprights and bracing timbers, forming the sides and 
ends as shown in the drawings of the side and end elevation 

106 



HOUSE-BOATS AND RAFTS 

(Fig. 7). The door spaces at the ends should be three feet 
wide and seven feet high, so that when trimmed and the 
doors hung the actual size will be two feet and eight inches 
wide by six feet and ten inches high. 

The window openings are two feet wide by two feet and 
six inches high, and between all the uprights braces are 
nailed fast to prevent the frame from racking. The arrange- 
ment of framing timbers is quite clearly shown in the draw- 
ings, and in the deck plan (Fig. 6) the arrangement of the 
bunks is indicated. Across the top of the framework one- 
and-a-half -by-six-inch beams are laid having their upper 
edge crowned as shown in the end elevation (Fig. 7). Over 
these the roofing boards are laid lengthwise, and on top of 
them canvas is drawn and tacked down all around the edges 
with copper tacks. 

The roofing boards may be of three-quarter-inch stuff 
planed on both sides and from two to four inches wide, 
whichever is the easiest to obtain. The boards should ex- 
tend over the ends and sides for two or three inches so that 
a finishing moulding can be made fast under the boards. 
Give the top of the boards two good coats of paint, then 
stretch oiled canvas over the top and tack it fast. Several 
coats of paint will finish the canvas and make it hard enough 
to walk on, for in pleasant weather this upper deck will make 
a pleasant place to spend many hours under the shade of a 
canopy. The cabin sheathing is of narrow matched boards 
planed on both sides and as free from knots and sappy places 
as it is possible to get them. The boards must be thoroughly 
sun-dried before they are laid on and nailed fast, and it 
would be well also to paint the matched edges so that moist- 

107 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

ure may not get in and swell them. The inside and outside 
of the cabin is to be painted to protect the wood from 
moisture, and if painted a light tint of any color, or white, it 
will be cooler in summer when the sun is shining than if 
coated with a dark color. Dark colors absorb light and 
heat while light ones reflect or shed them. 

The window-sashes should be arranged on hinges so that 
they may be swung in and back against the inside of the 
cabin and hooked. Or, by cutting away a part of the up- 
right, the sash may be arranged to slide. Wire screening 
may be tacked over the window-frame at the outer side to 
keep out flies and mosquitoes, and screen doors can be made 
also for the front and rear doorways — to swing in, as the 
wooden doors swing out. 

Over the rear deck a canopy is arranged on poles. This 
is similar to a tent fly for camping, and will shed the sun and 
rain from the deck when the cook is preparing meals. 

A small cook-stove may be arranged inside the cabin, but 
if it is not convenient to carry coal in a box on the deck an 
oil-stove will answer every purpose. 

Two bunks may be built in on each side, one above the 
other, and four wire springs may be arranged to rest on 
battens driven across the bunks at the head and foot. A 
small hatch should be cut in the rear deck and another one 
through the cabin floor so that a few things may be stored 
in the hold. The aft hatch should be provided with a suc- 
tion-pump so that any water that leaks in can be readily 
pumped out. 

Rings, cleats, and ropes should be provided for the punt, 
and two anchors would be better than one, especially when 

108 



HOUSE-BOATS AND RAFTS 

near the shore or in shallow water, to hold the punt from 
swinging, which it is sure to do if there is any wind or waves. 
Always anchor it so that the wind is blowing on one end and 
not broadside as it is a strain on the anchors and ropes to 
hold a boat broadside on. 

By erecting a spar fifteen or twenty feet high and four or 
five inches in diameter, a square-sail can be rigged on yard- 
arms so that the house-punt can be sailed before the wind. 
A long oar will be necessary to steer with, or a portable 
rudder may be made and hung to the stern with pins and 
ropes. 

A house-punt of this description will be a very great 
source of enjoyment to several boys in the summer-time, 
and in the winter when not in use the punt can be hauled 
out on shore, the windows boarded up, and old canvas 
drawn over the decks to protect them from the sun. 

A House-raft 

Almost any boy can build a fairly good boat, even if it is 
a flat-bottomed sharpy. But to build a raft of the proper 
size, and on it a house that may be comfortably occupied, 
will require the aid of a good carpenter who understands 
construction, and under whose direction several boys can 
work to good advantage. 

For a party of four or five young fellows, a very convenient 
and commodious house-raft at anchor is shown in Fig. 8. 
The raft is about thirty-eight feet long and twelve feet wide, 
while the house is twenty-three feet long and twelve feet 
wide by nine feet high from raft deck to top of house. 

109 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

These dimensions will, if necessary, permit the raft to be 
taken through any canal, and without mast and deck -rails 
it will pass under the road bridges that span the canals. 

If the house-raft is to be used on canals only, it will be 
better not to have the mast, and the deck-rail may be 
arranged so that it can be removed quickly before passing 
under a low bridge. 

The mast is for use on lakes, bays, or rivers only, where a 
large square -sail can be hoisted on a yard-arm, and by means 
of which the raft may be made to sail before the wind 
slowly, so that its position may be changed from time to 
time. 

The construction of a house-raft is quite simple, and will 
not require the services of a boat-builder, as the carpenter 
can build both the raft and the house on it. To begin with, 
it will be necessary to obtain four straight logs thirty-eight 
feet long, as sound as possible, and not wind-racked. Two 
of these logs are to be laid with the butt end at the stern, 
and the other two with butts at the bow, thus giving equal 
spaces between each along the entire length of the raft. 

Across the ends of these logs nail a temporary strip to 
keep them the proper distance apart; then at right angles 
lay four -by-twelve-inch timbers on edge about two feet apart, 
and spike them securely to the logs. This part of the work 
should be done in shallow water, where the logs can be near 
enough to shore for the workers to stand on bottom. 

When laying these cross-timbers it is always well to place 
the first ones about five feet apart, and stand a straight tim- 
ber across from one to the other parallel to the logs, so that 
as each succeeding timber is laid it can be levelled by either 

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Fig. 9 



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A HOUSE-RAFT 



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BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

cutting slightly into the log or building up the bearing, as it 
may require. 

Having timbered the logs the entire length, begin to plank 
or deck the raft with one-inch-and-a-quarter spruce boards 
six inches wide, laying the strips from bow to stern. 

Fig. 9 will show the position of the logs with cross-timbers 
above, on top of which the planking may be seen. To the 
under side of the cross-beams and midway between the logs, 
planks should be fastened that will run the entire length of 
the raft. These are to form a bearing against which the 
upper bilge of the barrels will rest. Fig. 9 shows the heads 
of three barrels, each the end one of a number that are 
chained together and run all along under the raft to give it 
sufficient buoyancy to counteract the displacement that 
would be caused by the weight of the house and occupants. 

Fig. 10 is a side view of those same barrels, showing the 
position they occupy and the distance from one to the other. 
Oil-barrels are the best for this purpose, and after being well 
bunged they should be treated to several good coats of cop- 
per paint before being drawn under the raft. It would be 
well to leave a gallon of oil in each barrel, as it keeps the glue 
sizing in good condition, and prevents it from yielding to the 
dampness caused by the water, the pressure of which might 
in time find its way through small cracks or openings. 

A few yards of wrought-iron chain sufficiently heavy for 
the purpose can be obtained and cut into short lengths, and 
each end should be fitted with an eye-plate with four holes 
in it, which plates are to be fastened to the ends of the bar- 
rels with short, fat screws, having first thoroughly smeared 
the back of each with white-lead. The barrels should be 

112 



HOUSE-BOATS AND RAFTS 

arranged about one foot apart, and if the logs are from 
twenty -four to thirty inches in diameter at the butt end 
there should be just enough space to accommodate the three 
rows of barrels between the four logs as shown in Fig. 9. 

Across the logs at the bow and stern attach the planking, 
to extend down a foot below the water-line, and with short 
uprights against which to nail, fasten weather-boards along 
the sides of the raft to cover the logs and come up flush with 
the deck line. 

Seven feet in from the ends of the raft lay cross-stringers, 
three by six inches, at distances of eighteen inches apart, on 
which to place the floor of the house. This flooring may be 
of narrow spruce boards, planed on one side and having 
matched edges. 

The uprights for the house construction are placed on the 
flooring beams and sills, and securely pinned to them, and 
the cross-beams at top of house should be placed the same 
distance apart as the floor beams to sustain the weight above, 
as the top of the house or upper deck will be the open-air 
living-room. The side elevation (Fig. 11) shows the position 
of windows that will be placed on both sides of the house, 
and another illustration (Fig. 12 A and B) shows both front 
and rear elevations of the house, as well as the location of 
companionway and deck-rails. 

The deck plan (Fig. 13) shows the arrangement of the 
house and how it is divided into the several compartments. 

In the front, the dining and living saloon is a room measur- 
ing about eight feet in width and eleven feet in length. At 
one end a couch is placed which, if necessary, can be used as 
a bed ; and close to it are two large windows — one overlook - 

113 









Fig. 12 



OINING SALOON 
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Fig. 13 

PETAILS OF A HOUSE-RAFT 



HOUSE BOATS AND RAFTS 

ing the fore-deck, the other giving a view from the side of 
the house. At the other end of the room a neat china-cup- 
board is built into the corner, and in the opposite corner the 
front door and a window are placed. One of the illustrations 
is an interior view of this cabin, showing how comfortable 
and attractive it can be made to appear. As it is a sort of 
general mess-room and living-cabin, it can be decorated and 
kept as such in a ship-shape manner. 

Fishing-rods, guns, and nets against the wall will take up 
little space, while in the locker under the cupboard a variety 
of sporting paraphernalia can be stored. 

Leading aft from this saloon, a passageway opens into the 
galley, a room six feet and six inches wide by eleven feet 
long, where all the cooking-utensils and stores are kept. 

This galley should be painted a light gray or ivory white, 
with several coats of paint mixed for outside use, so the 
wood-work can all be wiped down with a damp cloth when 
necessary. White is always the best color for a kitchen 
or galley, and it has the appearance of cleanliness that no 
other color will give; it will be found to keep a room much 
cooler also, and for that reason it is recommended. A rug 
or rag carpet will be an acceptable covering for the floor, 
which should be treated to several coats of yellow- ochre 
paint. 

Between the dining-saloon and the galley two state-rooms 
are placed, so the passageway runs between them, and from 
which the doors open that lead into them. These rooms are 
each about eight feet and six inches long by nearly five feet 
wide, and two berths, each three feet wide, are built in the 
rooms. Both rooms have large windows, and spaces for 

115 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

corner wash-stands ; and as the doors open against the ends 
of the berths, there is no lost space nor wasted room. 

Rows of hooks will accommodate clothing, and the lower 
berth should be at least twenty-two inches up from the floor 
to allow room to slide a trunk or two under it. These rooms 
can be ceiled and papered, or painted, as a matter of choice, 
but a few coats of varnish will render the wood-work in good 
shape and proof against dampness. 

All the windows and doors in this boat can be of stock 
sizes, so that the cost of special sizes can be avoided. The 
sheathing may be of cedar shingles or of clapboards, as the 
cost is about the same. The clapboards should be painted, 
and will look better than shingles, although a very artistic 
effect is had by staining the shingles and painting the door 
and window casings in shades to match, preferably in the 
brown and olive -green shades. 

The flooring of the upper deck should be of regular flooring 
boards with matched edges and planed on one side. Over 
this flooring canvas should be stretched and tacked, and 
afterwards given two or three coats of oil and varnish to 
make it water-proof, and finally treated to a coat or two of 
lead-colored paint. The seams should all be well laid down, 
and fastened with copper or tinned tacks, driven about two 
inches apart. It would be well to give the boards two good 
thick coats of paint before the canvas is applied, so that 
when the oil soaks through the canvas it will soften the paint 
somewhat, and help to hold the canvas in its proper place. 

Leading from the fore-deck to the upper deck a stair or 
companionway is built, and anchored securely in place to 
the front of the house. The platform at the head of the 

116 



HOUSE-BOATS AND RAFTS 

staircase is braced over the front doorway by means of two 
iron rods that act as brackets, and which are screwed securely 
both to the under side of the platform and to the door-casing. 
This can be an open stairway composed of two side ways and 
eleven treads, the ends of the treads being anchored in 
grooves cut in the ways, and securely fastened with screws. 

The rail around the deck is of common iron gas-pipe held 
in place by sockets and uprights. If the piping cannot be 
had, then hickory or hard- wood poles one inch and a half in 
diameter may be employed and held in place by uprights 
three inches wide and thirty inches high, through which two 
holes have been bored to receive the poles. 

Around the fore and after decks a stringer three by six 
inches can be spiked down, and to the sides near the bow and 
stern large cleats should be bolted fast, by which the raft can 
be moored. Amidships at the bow a large post may be fast- 
ened, around which to attach a tow-line if necessary, and at 
the stern a rudder is arranged, with the post projecting up 
through the deck for a distance of a foot or eighteen inches. 
A mortise should be cut in the top of this post, into which the 
end of a tiller can be inserted when steering the craft, either 
when in tow or under sail. 

A mast twenty-five or thirty feet long can be stepped 
amidships against the front of the house, and strapped fast 
to the upper deck with a horseshoe band. A step-block can 
be fastened to the deck into which the tenoned end of the 
mast will fit. 

A yard-arm about twenty feet long, or longer if desired, can 
be arranged to hoist nearly to the top of the mast, and from 
which a large square-sail may be rigged so the lower corners 

117 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

will fasten to outriggers four or five feet long that can be 
temporarily braced at the sides of the boat when sail is set. 
This pole affords a good place from which to fly club or col- 
lege colors, and from which to suspend lines of colored and 
Japanese lanterns to illuminate at night. This mast should 
be six inches in diameter at the base, and gradually taper 
near the top, and if a sail is to be used frequently, it would 
be a good plan to bobstay and shroud the stick with some 
standing rigging, so as to relieve it from the entire strain of 
a large sail. 

The top of the house affords a living-room twenty-three 
feet long and twelve feet wide, and in that space a number 
of chairs, a table, hammocks, and benches can be accommo- 
dated. 

For lake, river, and bay use this deck can be covered by a 
large awning, supported at the centre by a ridge-pole, and at 
the sides by upright posts that hold a stout wire in place, 
over which the striped awning canvas is caught. Drop- 
curtains at the sides will be convenient to ward off the bright 
sunlight, and this deck-room will be found the most delight- 
ful place to spend the pleasant days and evenings. 

Along the inland waterways a raft of this description is a 
most desirable craft, as it can be towed from place to place, 
and for pleasure purposes its value cannot be overestimated, 
as it is a base for hunting and fishing as well as a retreat from 
village life; and the pleasure and comfort that can be had 
from a raft like this can well be appreciated when once tried. 

To build a house-raft on these plans is not a difficult nor 
an expensive piece of work, and outside of the cost of the 
lumber, timber, barrels, and logs the amount is limited, unless 

118 



HOUSE-BOATS AND RAFTS 

finish is contemplated. With materials at hand and the 
help of three or four good workers, it should not require more 
than a week to construct this raft and house, and if fitted 
and painted in the manner described the cost should not ex- 
ceed from two hundred to three hundred dollars, including 
all labor and material, according to the locality in which it 
is constructed. 

A Float 

In the spring, when every one who owns a boat of any sort 
is painting and repairing his craft, boat-houses, and floats, a 
few suggestions in regard to the floats will be found of practi- 
cal value. 

My chum and I own two canoes and a row-boat. The 
first year we built a boat-house, which exhausted our funds, 
and we were obliged to wait till the next spring before we 
could consider the expense of making a float. Most floats 
are constructed of spars on logs, with a mooring on top. 

As we prepared to make the float ourselves, we wanted to 
find the easiest and cheapest way of doing so. The spars 
were costly, and, besides, are clumsy, and for a float of ade- 
quate size they would have to be so large that we could not 
move them alone. 

As we lived in the city we could not get logs, or, if we could, 
we should have had a big bill for cartage. It was while we 
were painting the boat-house one afternoon that we saw an 
empty barrel go floating by. My chum said he had an idea 
that we could make a float after all. We went to one of the 
grocery stores and got four new flour-barrels, with the heads, 
at a cost of twenty-five cents apiece. 

119 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

We took them, two by two, over to the boat-house, and 
then went to a near-by lumber-yard and got three two-by- 
three sixteen-foot joists, which cost us fifty-five cents, and 
one hundred square feet of boards such as are sold at thirty 
dollars a thousand feet. Some nails and our tools, and we 
were ready to begin work. 

First we laid two barrels end to end about two feet apart ; 
then about twelve feet from them we laid the other two in 
the same way. Then we took two of the joists and laid them 
on each side of the barrels on edge. Taking the other, we 
cut it in two pieces six feet long, which left a waste space of 
four feet in length. We then nailed the two sixteen-foot 
pieces and the two six-foot pieces together in the form of a 
rectangle as in Fig. 14. 

Then, having propped the barrels to keep them in place, 

/6ft, 




Fig. 14 



6ft. 



A (end view) 




Fig. 16 



120 



JOIST 



aft. 



Fig. 15 B (side view) 








HOUSE-BOATS AND RAFTS 

we lifted this hollow rectangle onto them so that it rested 
on their sides as in Fig. 15. Cutting the four-foot joists into 
four one -foot pieces, we utilized them as corner braces. 

Next we fastened the barrels to the frame, and, after 
painting them with a coat of thick paint to fill the cracks, 
we launched the craft. Then we covered the frame with the 
boards, laying them crosswise. A ring-bolt in each corner 
and a roller in the middle, and an old hose-pipe tacked 
around the edges, completed the float as shown in Fig. 16. 

This we found was a most excellent float, and, above all, it 
was light, could be hauled out on the bank easily, or stored 
during the winter. 

As it rose and fell with the tide there was no trouble in 
launching the boats at any time, whereas with a dock the 
pleasures of launching at low-water are too well known to 
be described. 

Below is a table of expenditures: 

Barrels, at 25 cents each $1 .00 

Joists " $20 per M 55 

Boards " 30 " 3.00 

Nails " 4 cents a pound 20 

Paint " 20 cents a can 20 

Rings " 20 cents each 80 

Total $5.75 

While the prices of these articles, particularly the lumber, 
have risen somewhat, the cost of this float will remain ex- 
tremely small. 
9 



Part IV 



SAIL-BOATS AND SAILING 



Chapter X 

BUYING A SAIL-BOAT 

THE first question to be decided is whether you will 
sail for pleasure or merely for sport — that is, whether 
you intend to enjoy sailing for its own sake, or only for the 
fun of racing and winning races. It is possible to have 
both forms of enjoyment with a single boat, but not until 
the owner is a good sailor. The beginner, who alone needs 
hints on boat-buying, will have a great deal more enjoy- 
ment, as well as less worry and disappointment, if he re- 
solves to think as little as possible about racing until he has 
well-proved confidence in himself as a sailor. Conse- 
quently he should first avoid the most common blunder of 
beginners, which is to buy a boat simply because it is fast. 
The temptation will be great, but the risks are greater. 

Some General Considerations 

It is always best, in learning to sail, to buy a boat at 
second-hand. Such a one can generally be had at about 
half the price of a new boat, and, if it proves to be too large 
or too small or too "crank" or too heavy for the owner's 
taste or strength, it can be sold at about cost, whereas a 
new boat must generally be disposed of at a sacrifice. It 
may be accepted as a rule that a boy's first boat, like his 

125 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



first horse, never entirely suits: it is merely a means of 
finding out exactly what is wanted. 

Next to buyimg a racing boat, a boy's most common 
blunder is in selecting too large a craft. He thinks it will 
be nice to have room enough for his whole family or a party 
of friends, but the truth, humiliating though it be, is that 
the fewer people a sail-boat will hold the less will be the 
probability of accident. Guests in a sail-boat like guests 
anywhere else (except in church), must talk to their enter- 
tainer, and no one who is learning to sail, or even learning 
the ways of a new boat, dare have his attention diverted 
from his work. Even at sea ; among old sailors, there is 
the rule, "Do not talk to the man at the wheel." In a 
boat full of people, too, the owner is always disturbed by 
a sense of responsibility for his friends' safety. A boat 
which will hold only two people besides the owner is large 
enough for any beginner. 

Never buy a boat at second-hand merely because it looks 
like a beauty as it lies on the water. Graceful "lines" are 
desirable, but they will not prevent a boat being rotten 
or "crank" or oversparred or sprung at the center-board 
or too slight of frame. A boat at second-hand has as many 
possible weak points as a horse that has been used a great 
deal; and, as in the case of the horse, they are often con- 
cealed from the casual observer by faultless outward ap- 
pearance. 

Is the Boat Sound? 

After finding a boat which is small enough and is not 
unpleasing to the eye, the first duty is to examine closely 

126 



BUYING A SAIL-BOAT 



to see if it is rotten anywhere. This is not always easy, 
for paint and putty can be made to hide almost all rotten 
places, and the less sound a boat is the more carefully it 
is likely to be painted — if for sale. For this reason it 
usually is best to look at a shabby boat rather than one 
newly painted. If signs of rot appear inside, on either 
the planking or the framing, do not consider that boat any 
farther, no matter how cheap it may be or at how little 
cost the owner says the damaged parts can be repaired. 
Give up, also, any boat which shows a fine line of water- 
soaked wood at the joints of the center-board trunk. Look 
carefully to the "step" of the mast — the socket in the bot- 
tom in which the foot of the mast rests; this, if rotten, may 
be repaired at little cost; but the sum must be mentally 
added to the price of the boat. 

Overhaul the Bottom 

If satisfied that the inside is sound, have the boat hauled 
out of the water, or at least high enough ashore to be "heeled 
over" to either side, so that the outside of the planking may 
be examined. Unless recently painted, some parts of the 
bottom will be bare, and a little scraping with a knife will 
show whether the wood is sound. Look closely at the 
ends of the planking where they join the stem and stern; 
many planks, sound elsewhere, are so rotten at these parts 
that fibres may be rubbed from them with the finger. Do 
not buy a boat which is in this condition. One rotten board 
is proof presumptive of more ; a broken or splintered board, 
however, is a fault that may be corrected, though the cost 
must be added to the price. 

127 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Very light framework should be avoided; boats made 
very light, for special purposes, are often good for a year 
or two, but after that they strain rapidly, and are unsafe 
for steady use by an amateur, for they have a way of sud- 
denly leaking badly in rough weather. 

Masts, Sails, and Rigging 

If the mast is rotten at the bottom, you must consider 
the expense of a new one, which for a small boat is trifling. 
As new sails are costly, examine sails carefully. Many 
which are in daily use are so rotten that holes may be 
punched in them by vigorous use of the finger. As sails 
are held together principally by the leech-rope — the cord 
that passes entirely around the edge of the sail — test this 
rope by rubbing with thumb and forefinger to see if it is 
rotten, and test in the same way the thread with which it 
is sewed to the canvas. 

All the rigging and the. appliances in which it works must 
be carefully looked to; rope is cheap, and old halyards, 
lifts, falls, sheets, etc., can be replaced at little cost, but 
the weak and dangerous parts of a boat's rig are generally 
the "throats," "collars," or whatever else they may be 
called, of the spars, the fastenings of the "blocks" — pul- 
leys through which the cordage runs — and the cleats to 
which any of the rigging is made fast. Dozens of serious 
accidents occur through cleats breaking away while the 
strain is upon them. Cleats and blocks are generally fas- 
tened too tightly, and in such cases are sure, sooner or 
later, to strain loose and break away, and always just when 
the result would be most dangerous. 

128 



BUYING A SAIL-BOAT 



A Thorough Trial 

When you have found a boat which is sound in all par- 
ticulars, take it out on the water and try it thoroughly, to 
see how you are likely to agree. Old sailors insist that 
every boat has a "way of her own," and that no two boats, 
built exactly alike, will act alike; and old sailors ought- to 
know. If you find the sail is all you can manage in a light 
breeze, you do not want that boat; it may be perfection 
itself for a stronger boy, but at present you are not that 
person. If it is hard to steer, requiring the full sweep of 
the tiller to change its course, leave it to somebody more 
experienced in stubborn boats, for this is a fault that can 
be remedied only by an expert, and experts' services are 
costly. If she "heels over" to the outer edge of the deck 
in light wind, she has not "bearings" enough for a be- 
ginner; this may be corrected by plenty of ballast — which 
usually consists of sand-bags — properly placed; but be- 
ginners should avoid the necessity of handling ballast while 
under sail, or of having any one do it for them; it will be 
better, therefore, to have a boat with greater bearings. 

While on the water, test the center-board freely. If it 
is difficult to raise or lower, avoid that boat as you would 
the small-pox. There are some fine boats with bad center- 
boards or trunks, but their owners do not allow their own 
boys to sail them. 

In buying a boat you will always find the seller quite 
willing and anxious to show you how it will sail. There 
is no harm in letting him do this as long as he likes; but 
no matter how well the boat acts in his hands, do not for- 

129 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



get that he will not be the sailor after you become owner. 
Men have been called very hard names for what they said 
regarding boats they were selling, but no man can sell his 
seamanship with his boat. 

After you have looked among boats according to the 
suggestions given above, you will come to the conclusion 
that there are not many really good boats in existence. 
You will not be entirely wrong, but you will have gained 
an amount of knowledge that will be worth far more than 
it has cost in time — and temper. 

When you have money enough to buy a boat, and feel 
as if you could not possibly wait another day, a good way 
to obtain proper patience is to ask a lot of boating men, 
successively, what model of craft you should select. By 
the time you have heard what they say in favor of their 
own particular models, and against all others, and learned 
that the special favorite of one very good sailor is the 
special detestation of another sailor equally good, you will 
wonder whether all boats are not very bad — or very good. 
Further observation, however, will teach you that men 
who like to be on the water select their boats according to 
the special uses to which they are to be put, or the waters 
in which they sail ; if you follow their example in this re- 
spect you are not likely to make a mistake. 

Differing Models 

In many localities there is but one model of sail-boat, 
but between Maine and Florida there are to be found at 
least a dozen distinct styles, each of which is entirely satis- 

r 3° 



BUYING A SAlL-BOAf 



factory to the people who use it, probably because it is the 
outgrowth of their necessities. Boys seem to imagine that 
small sail-boats are built only for pleasure-sailing, but the 
truth is that most of them were designed for working pur- 
poses and are built accordingly. If you happen to live in 
a town where there is but one model in use, you must be 
content with the local fashion, unless you are rich enough 
to order a new boat, of different model, from elsewhere. 
There are many towns on Long Island Sound where nothing 
can be had but the sharpie — a craft almost as simple in 
shape as a box, but very fast in a "free" wind, and quite 
likely to upset in any other, if a novice is at the helm. On 
the New England coast, where the water is quite deep, even 
inshore, there are bays on which only deep yawls are seen. 
On the Jersey coast are hundreds of sail-boats called ' ' sneak- 
boxes" which look like a deep spoon covered by a narrow 
one, while in and about New York the broad, shallow cat- 
boat is the favorite. These four distinct models are the 
types of which almost all others are mere variations. Re- 
cently there has come into use a graceful combination of 
canoe and rowboat model, with one or two masts and 
several sails, and it answers nicely the demands of persons 
who sail only in the mildest breezes, but it is not to be 
recommended to boys who are ambitious to handle sail- 
boats in all weathers. 

Any of the other models named are safe enough for a 
careful beginner, though the sharpie should be placed at 
the foot of the list, and any of them can be bought in or 
near New York or any other large sea-coast city. On the 
lakes and other interior waters the buyer must generally 

131 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

choose between the cat-boat and yawl models. The cat -boat 
has an evil reputation for upsetting ; the fault being always 
with the crew instead of the boat. Nevertheless, a beginner 
would do well to learn sailing in some other craft. A boy's 
trouble with a cat-boat is generally that the sail — there 
being but one — is very large, and although there are ap- 
pliances for "reefing," or shortening, sail, they are not al- 
ways easy to handle at times when reefing is desirable. 
A yawl-rigged boat has the canvas so divided between the 
two masts that a learner may begin with as little as he likes, 
and in a sudden squall, when carrying all sail, can drop his 
mainsail and be perfectly safe, while still carrying enough 
canvas to make headway, and even speed. 

The Cat-Boat Rig 

To the cat-boat rig, with its large single sail, the amateur 
is sure to come sooner or later, but in his first season it is 
better for him to try the yawl, not only for safety, but for 
convenience. The breezes of summer, late spring, and 
early autumn have a provoking way of disappearing sudden- 
ly; this is annoying enough to the veteran sailor, but it is 
worse to the novice, for it is not pleasant to sit in the hot 
sun, on smooth water, and wonder how you ever will get 
home again. Patience and endurance are sufficiently taxed 
in learning sailing without the extra strain of being be- 
calmed just as you were intending to go about and scud 
for home and supper, or to meet an appointment at school 
or baseball. A cat -boat can be rowed ashore, but the work 
is terribly hard, even for two boys; but the yawl, dory, 

132 



BUYING A SAIL-BOAT 



or boat of that class is practically a heavy rowboat. The 
cat-boat is useless except when there is wind, but the yawl 
is always available as a rowboat, as well as for fishing or 
duck-shooting. The yawl, too, can be used in narrow 
streams, where a boat propelled only by sail is sometimes 
useless. 

Keel and Center-Board 

Every American who sails for pleasure must at some 
time — probably many times — take part in the yet unsettled 
fight as to the relative merits of keel and center-board, but 
it is not necessary that a boy should give himself any un- 
easiness about this while learning to sail. He will find a 
center-board boat the pleasanter to begin with, for with 
a given amount of wind it does not "heel over" as much 
as a keel boat, and it is during the "heeling" process that 
amateurs are most frightened. The center-board, however, 
requires attention which compels the beginner to have an 
assistant on board, while the keel always takes care of 
itself, besides leaving the inside of the boat free and clear. 
Keel boats are charged with some very bad habits; if, in 
running ashore or over a just submerged stone, log, or 
stump, the keel happens to ground, the boat is likely to 
tip sidewise so quickly that the crew is in the water before 
knowing what has happened; to step from a small keel 
boat to the shore or a float or pier is also often productive 
of a ducking. 

For very shallow water, such as is most common in 
American bays and rivers, the broad center-board cat-boat 
is the only sailing craft practicable. The small hull, rigged 

i33 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

with jib and mainsail instead of a single large sail, is sure 
to capture the eye and heart of a boy, but the learner would 
do well to admire such a rig from a distance. It certainly 
is pretty: nothing but a sloop-yacht; which it closely re- 
sembles, can be prettier; but no boy should trust himself 
to handle a boat with a jib until he has mastered the single 
sail. This caution does not apply to the jib of the two- 
masted yawl above alluded to, for in this it is balanced to 
some extent by a small sail aft, and, besides, is not as large, 
in proportion to the mainsail, as in the sloop rig. 

To recapitulate: the first thing to think of in determin- 
ing a model is safety; the next is comfort and convenience. 
The safest of all the boats named is the sneak-box, but it 
is not a pretty craft, nor is it easy to find except on part of 
the Jersey coast. The most risky in unaccustomed hands 
is the sharpie. The cat-boat is steadiest under the wind — 
that is, she lies over least to windward, and is also the most 
roomy. The yawl is not as pretty as the cat-boat, but is 
far better as an "all-around" boat. 

If the reader happens to live on inland waters, where 
there are no sail-boats of any kind — and there are hun- 
dreds of such places — he will have to put rigging and keel, 
center-board or lee-board, on such rowboat as he can find 
with beam and bearings enough to carry sail. In such case 
he cannot do better than consult Lieutenant Ross's chapter, 
"Sails for Open Boats." After rigging his boat, he should 
not attempt to sail until he has carefully read the same 
author's "At the Helm." On the coast, or wherever sail- 
ing is common, a boy can always get instruction and sug- 
gestion from men and boys accustomed to boats, but the 

i34 



BUYING A SAIL-BOAT 



boy who cannot take any one aboard as teacher cannot too 
carefully read all the printed instructions within reach. 
Confidence will come quickly after experience, but haste 
and recklessness are nowhere more out of place than in a 
sail-boat. 

Racing Types 

This chapter does not include the fast modern racing 
types, since it is intended for beginners. These boats have 
what is termed the canoe hull and the fin-keel, which means 
that a weight of lead is suspended below the actual keel, 
as in the case of the big racing yachts, or they have the semi- 
fm-keel, which is a compromise between the fin-keel and the 
plain-keel boat. These fast boats, built by Herreshoff and 
other leading boat builders, may be seen at their best in 
harbors such as Marblehead, which is a great boating center, 
and elsewhere, and they are assuredly most picturesque 
and fast. But they are more expensive than the older 
types, and it is a more delicate matter to select and to 
"tune them up" and to sail them. Before entering upon 
this field a boy should be thoroughly at home in a sail- 
boat, and he should have the best expert advice in the 
selection of the boat and in its management. 



Chapter XI 

FIRST LESSON WITH TILLER AND SHEET 

MANY consider the sailing of the small cat-boat a most 
simple matter, and are thoroughly convinced that 
they have mastered its handling if they have been able to 
take out a small boat in a light wind without any disastrous 
results, while, in fact, they may not have caught hold of 
the first underlying principles of sailing. It is this large 
class that furnish the long list of boating accidents that 
appear in the papers almost every day during the summer 
months. They may have acquired a. sufficient smattering 
to be able to handle the boat under ordinary conditions, 
but when something a little out of the ordinary happens 
they are totally at loss. 

Some Basic Principles 

Before proceeding to a discussion of the subject proper, 
perhaps it will be advisable to explain the fundamental 
principles of the action of the wind on the sail, and its 
relation to the boat's course, and also the action of the 
rudder. To begin with, there are two "centers" that we 
must consider in our cat -boat, and it is the relation that 
these centers bear to each other that determines the be- 

136 



LESSON WITH TILLER AND SHEET 

havior of our boat. They are the " center of effort" and 
the ' ' center of lateral resistance. ' ' The center of effort is the 
center point of the sail area, hence the point at which the 
whole force of the wind may be supposed to act. The 
center of resistance is the center of the lateral area of the 
immersed boat, or, in other words, the center of the side 
area of the under- water body of the boat. If a perpendicu- 
lar be dropped through this center, it may be considered as 
the pivot around which the boat swings. If a force is 
applied forward of this point the boat's bow swings off; 
if aft, the stern then swings off. As the wind is the force in 
question, and the point of application of this force the 
center of effort, we can readily see by the relative positions 
of these points whether our boat will have a strong or a 
small tendency to drive its bow up into the wind. As the 
sail area of the cat -boat is collected in one large sail, the 
center of this sail is pretty well aft, and consequently a 
good bit back of the center of resistance, and so we have a 
very strong tendency of the boat to send its head into the 
wind. To counteract this the use of the rudder becomes 
necessary, and hence is accountable for the great pull 
noticed on the tiller of the cat-boat. As the rudder plays 
such an important part in the sailing of a cat-boat, the first 
thing to master in learning to sail is the proper use of the 
tiller. 

The Tiller 

Now, to start, take your seat next to the tiller, to wind- 
ward, facing the bow, with your hand on the tiller near the 
end. The first thing you will notice is that when you pull 

10 137 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS "_ 

the stick toward you the boat's bow falls away from the 
wind. The next thing noticed is that if you let go of the 
tiller the boat's head will come up into the wind. This is 
the usual way of bringing a boat into the wind (luffing), 
because, with the exception of light winds, if the rudder is 
used to bring the boat's head into the wind it very fre- 
quently does it so rapidly as to kill the headway. As has 
been stated, the boat is kept on a straight course by a con- 
stant use of the rudder, and this may be easily acquired by 
practice. 

In your first lessons in sailing it will be necessary to take 
some one along to manage the sail, and you must devote 
your whole attention to the steering. A very good way to 
train yourself to steer a straight course is to take some 
fixed object on shore and head the boat for it, altering the 
rudder from time to time, as may be necessary to keep the 
boat's head pointed toward it. After this step has been 
thoroughly mastered you may advance to "going about" — 
that is, putting the boat on the other tack. When you want 
to go about call out, "Hard-a-lee" (this is the signal to the 
sheet-tender to be ready), and let go the tiller. The ten- 
dency of the sail to bring the boat's head up into the wind 
will swing her around until the sail flaps, and when this 
point is reached put her over the rest of the way by push- 
ing the tiller away from you, at the same time changing 
your seat to the other, now the windward, side. Several 
days should be taken in practice with steering, until you 
feel that you have thoroughly mastered these two lessons. 
This will perhaps be a sufficient preliminary drill with the 
rudder, and you may now hand the tiller over to your 

138 



LESSON WITH TILLER AND SHEET 

companion, and in the next practice spin take charge of 
the sheet. It is better to take the two up separately as 
described, for when the handling of the tiller and sheet are 
combined later on, you have had a certain amount of 
practice with each. 

Tending Sheet 

In the first lessons in tending sheet your station had bet- 
ter be in the cockpit, just forward of the steersman, and 
after you are accustomed to handling it you can then try the 
deck aft of the cockpit. This is the position of the sheet- 
tender in racing, and, in fact, is the only place where his 
movements are entirely unhampered, and he is out of the 
way of the steersman. 

As to the position to take when hauling in or paying out 
the rope, the one shown in the sketch will be found very 
convenient for the rapid handling of a long rope, such as 
the sheet of a cat-boat is. (Fig. i .) The feet should be placed 




Fig. 1 
i39 



BOATING BOOK F OR BOYS 

well apart and the knees bent. The rope is hauled in with 
a rapid, steady, ''hand-over-hand" motion, and allowed to 
fall in a loose coil between the feet. When it is desired, the 
rope is paid out with a " hand-over-hand " motion in the 
opposite direction. Under no circumstances let the rope 
slide through your hands in paying out, and never loose 
your grip on it. 

Of course this position has to be modified when a man 
has to attend to sheet and tiller at the same time, but the 
"hand-over-hand" motion should always be retained. 
Always strive to have your sheet run in or out smoothly, 
and avoid jerks wherever possible. When you are tending 
sheet the course of the boat does not concern you; it is 
your duty simply to see that the sail is kept full. This can 
be seen by watching the sail along the mast, especially the 
region marked A in sketch, Fig. 2. At this part of the sail a 
little bagging is caused by topping up the peak, and if the 
sail is not drawing properly it is first made manifest by a ten- 
dency to flap here. If this is noticed, the sail is out too far, 
and you should haul it in until this disappears. When 
going about on the command ' ' Hard-a-lee " of the steers- 
man, trim the sheet in with a steady pull until the boom 
is nearly amidships as the boat is rounding up, so as to keep 
the sail full as long as possible, and then pay the rope out 
smoothly until the sail is trimmed properly for the altered 
course of the boat. 

There are two reasons for trimming the sheet in when 
going about — first, it keeps the sail full for a longer time, 
and in that way sends the boat about quicker and with 
but little loss of headway; and, secondly, should the boom 

140 




I. Tooth-pick. 2. Cut-water. 3- Coaming. 4. Center -board (raised). 5. Center -board 
dropped). 6. Rudder. 7. Oar-lock. 8. Tiller. 9. Traveler. 10. Traveler-block, ir. Sheet- 
rope. 12. Boom. 13. Jaws. 14. Mast. 15. Mast-hoops. 16. Halyard Cleats. 17. Bobstay. 
18. Snatch-block. 19. Throat-halyard and Blocks. 20. Peak-halyard and Blocks. 21. Top- 
ping-lift Block. 22. Topping-lift. 23. Gaff. 24. Reef-nettles. 25. Cringles. 26. Center- 
board-pin. 27. Rudder-pintle. 28. Skag. 29. Turn-buckle. 30. Bridle. Parts of Sail: 
A, Head. B, Peak. A-D, Hoist. B-C, Leach. 



BOATING BOOK FOR SOYS 

be allowed to shake with any amount of rope in the water 
when the sail is emptied of wind, it would be liable to foul 
in the rudder, tiller, or on any of the numerous cleats in 
the after-part of the boat, and would no doubt result in 
disaster. 

Jibing 

In learning to make the ''jibe" it will be necessary to 
have a competent instructor in the boat with you, as this 
manceuver has always been a most fruitful source of accident 
in sailing. It is a movement that requires careful manage- 
ment of both rudder and sail. Under no conditions should 
the beginner attempt it. In the ordinary requirements of 
sailing he can get along without it for a time, and he should 
not attempt it until he has become proficient in the hand- 
ling of his boat, and then only when a good sailor accom- 
panies him to give the necessary instructions. These can- 
not be described at length in this article, though it will do 
no harm to outline the principles of the jibe. A jibe may 
be said to be the movement of changing the sail from one 
side of the boat to the other without bringing the boat's 
head up into the wind and letting the sail flap. This is 
almost always accompanied by a change of course. To 
illustrate: Let us suppose you are sailing with the wind 
over the starboard quarter (starboard tack), then the boom 
will be out to port. It is desired to change the course more 
to the left (port). This may be done by swinging the boat 
around and shifting the sail from port to starboard. It will 
be seen from the study of the sketch, Fig. 3, that at no time 
is the bow of the boat "in the wind," or the sail flapping, 

142 



LESSON WITH TILLER AND SHEET 




Fig. 3 



but the sail just swings over. The delicate part of this 
movement is to break the force of the shock that is caused 
by the sheet checking the sail on the other side. To ac- 
complish this when the wind begins to spill out of the sail 
the sheet must be hauled in rapidly as the sail swings in- 
board, so that when the boom is amidships there is no slack, 
and paid out rapidly as the sail fills on the other side, whilst 

143 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

doing so introducing a sufficient pull on the rope to grad- 
ually check the boom. This and the management of the 
rudder can only be successfully acquired by observation and 
practice. One other point to be borne in mind is to raise 
the center-board when about to jibe, as no neat jibe can be 
made with the board down. 

Handling Tiller and Sheet Together 

Sufficient practice has been had in the use of the tiller 
and sheet separately, and on the next lesson you may try 
them both together. No new ideas will be introduced, but 
it will consist principally in becoming familiar with the many 
little makeshifts that render it possible to handle both the 
tiller and sheet of a fair-sized boat together. 

The first point perhaps is the matter of cleats for the 
sheet-rope, a most convenient arrangement of which is 
shown in the sketch, Fig. 4. The cleats on the coaming 
should be placed just about opposite the tiller-head, and 
it is also very desirable to have a cleat attached to the 
traveler. Fig. 4 A. 

When sailing a boat single-handed it is customary to 
handle the tiller by standing to leeward and placing the hip 
against it, as shown in the photograph of the cabin cat-boat, 
Fig. 3. In this manner both hands are left free to handle 
the sheet; or if the sheet be given a twist around one of 
the cleats to ease the strain, the other hand may be used 
to help steer. As to the matter of catching the sheet around 
a cleat to make it easier to hold, never fasten it in such a 
way that it cannot be loosened at a moment's notice. The 

144 



LESSON WITH TILLER AND SHEET 



proper manner is to give it a single turn and hold it with 
one hand, so that it may be easily thrown off or let slide 
over the cleat when necessary. This position may be seen in 
the photograph of the boat coming head on, Fig. 5. She is 
pulling rather hard, and the steersman has found difficulty 
in holding both tiller and sheet, so he is sitting on the tiller 





Fig. 4 A 



Fig. 4 

and steadying it with the right hand, and has given the 
sheet, which is held in the left, a single turn around the 
cleat on the coaming on the leeward side, in this manner 
having the boat under perfect control. 

Luffing About 

The illustration, Fig. 6, will illustrate two points — luffing 
about and trimming in the sheet. "Luffing about" is a 

i45 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

very simple movement. You are to leeward, leaning against 
the tiller, and when ready to luff about you step away 
from it, so it is free to swing, at the same time hauling in 
the sail as the boat rounds up, while the sail is flapping 




Fig. 5 

changing your place to the other side of the tiller, and swing- 
ing the boat around the rest of the way by means of the 
rudder. The photograph will give a clear idea of the move- 
ment when you start to round up and haul in the sheet. 

146 



LESSON WITH TILLER AND SHEET 




Fig* 6 



Before going about always be sure you have some board 
down. It will often be found necessary when sailing with 
a strong wind abeam to luff the boat up a little so as to be 
able to trim the sheet in. This luffing is done in the same 
manner as when you swing up (or luff) to go about, only 
the boat's motion up into the wind is checked when the 
desired alteration in the trim of the sail is made, and then 
the head is thrown off again by means of the rudder. 

147 



B OATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

The jibe will not be described, as it is most advisable 
to have an instructor for this manceuver. Of course, when 
the wind is light, the rudder and sheet may be held in the 
manner most suitable to the individual. The foregoing 
hints are only intended as aids when it is a breezy day and 
the tiller and sheet prove a little difficult to manage to- 
gether. 

General Hints 

A few general hints will not be out of place here. When 
putting off from a dock see that the tiller is shipped and the 
sheet free; then step up to the bow and pull your boat up 
to the end of the dock, until it lies sideways, and then, 
pushing against the dock, walk aft along the deck, in this 
manner giving the boat a good start in a line parallel to 
the dock. 

As soon as the boat is well under way and clear of the 
dock, take the tiller and trim in the sail. Of course it is 
not always possible to get off in this manner, as your boat 
may be inshore of another boat, and in this case it will be 
necessary to give your boat a shove straight backward, 
directing her with the rudder (which will act all right when 
the boat is going stern foremost) , until astern of the obstruct- 
ing boat, and then swing her head off with the rudder, and 
fill the sail. 

Making Dock 

Making a dock will not be as simple, on account of the 
necessity of killing the greater part of the boat's way be- 
fore touching the dock. In general, this is done by ap- 

148 






LESSON WITH TILLER AND SHEET 

proaching at an acute angle to the line you purpose to make 
the dock on, and rounding up abruptly by putting the rud- 
der hard over and letting the sheet run to spill the wind 
out of the sail. This abrupt turn serves to kill nearly all 
the headway, and should leave only enough for the boat to 
carry up to the dock. The remaining headway is checked by 
going up in the bow and "fending off " in the manner shown 
in the sketch, Fig. 7. The abruptness of the turn, and the 




c^gSjli 



Fig. 7 

149 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

amount of room allowed for rounding up, will vary accord- 
ing to the wind, and can only be acquired by practice. At 
first there will be just as much liability of your killing the 
headway too soon, and having to get an oar out to pole 




MAKING DOCK WITH WIND ABEAM 






\ 



\\ 



> 



MAKING DOCK BY JIBING 



P 




(r 




\ 



MAKING DOCK BEFORE THE WIND MAKING DOCK CLOSE HAULED 

Fig. 8 

150 



LESSON WITH TILLER AND SHEET 

up, as there is of not killing it sufficiently. In the latter 
case, if you see the boat after rounding up has too much 
momentum for you to check easily by standing in the bow, 




drop the center-board and weigh on it. The dragging of 
the board on the bottom will form a most effective brake. 
It is a bad thing to get into this practice, because, though 
most docks are in comparatively shallow water and it will 
act all right, it may be necessary to make a deep-water 

151 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

dock sometimes, or a mooring-buoy, and, of course, the board 
cannot in this case be used in the above manner. 

The diagrams, Fig. 8, show the ordinary conditions under 
which a dock has to be made, and they are sufficiently clear 
without further explanations. If you intend to leave the 
boat at the dock for any time, always unship the tiller, and 
it is also advisable to hoist the boom up by means of the 
topping-lift or to drop the peak, thus causing the sail to 
bag and preventing an excessive swinging of the boom in 
the wind. Another hint about leaving a boat at a dock 
with sail up: always tie her with a very short painter, so 
as to prevent swinging. 

A little difficulty is experienced at times in "topping up" 
the peak or tauting the halyards. This may be easily over- 
come in the manner shown in the sketch, Fig. 9. The 
halyard is grasped in the manner shown, and the body 
swung back. Great power can be obtained in this way, 
and a large sail can be topped up by such means. 






Chapter XII 

SECOND LESSON, WITH DIAGRAMS 

WHILE boat sailing cannot be taught by precept alone, 
an intelligent knowledge of the theory of the art will 
enable any one, with a little additional practice, to handle 
a boat with skill, freedom, and perfect safety. The limits 
of so brief an article will not admit of minute instructions 
bearing on every situation likely to arise, yet the few prac- 
tical hints and details that follow will, if carefully noted, 
be found of service to the youthful mariner. The latter 
will understand that the principles of true seamanship apply 
with equal force to all boats of whatever size, build, or rig. 
These remarks will in great part have reference to the sloop 
— a simple type of craft, with a single mast, mainsail, and 
jib. 

Helm 

This is a term applied to the steering gear, including the 
rudder and tiller (or wheel) . When a boat carries a weather 
helm, her head has a tendency to come up "into the wind," 
or nearer the direction from which the wind blows, neces- 
sitating an action of the rudder to keep her on her course. 
This troublesome habit is generally caused by too much 
after-sail or a faulty stowage of the ballast. To carry a 
11 i53 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

lee helm, or an inclination to fall off or away from the wind 
(the opposite of that just described), is even a worse trait, 
and should be counteracted, if a smaller jib, a shorter bow- 
sprit, or a larger mainsail will remedy a defect due to too 
much head-sail. 

When the helm is "put to starboard" or "port" (to 
right or left), the tiller handle is moved in the direction 
named, but the boat's head is carried the contrary way by 
the operation of the rudder. Fig. i will illustrate this point, 
the arrows denoting the course the vessel will take with each 
helm. When the boat is pressed backward through the water 
(or has what is called stern-board) , the action of the rudder 
is reversed. 

The Care of the Sheets 

Sheets are ropes that confine and trim the jib and main- 
sail when set. They usually lead along the deck to the 
helmsman, and in squally or threatening weather should 
never be so tied or made fast that they cannot be eased 
or cast off at a moment's warning. It has been truly said 
that the main-sheet is the key to the whole science of boat 
sailing, and for that reason great care should be exercised 
in its proper management. No good boat will capsize un- 
less the sails are hampered by the sheets. A skilled boat- 
man will take advantage of every change of the wind, how- 
ever small, to trim the sheets so that the sails will stand 
full and receive the most favorable pressure. 

Close-hauled, or By the Wind 

This is the situation a boat is in when she is pointing as 
near the direction or "eye" of the wind (with the sheets 

i54 



SECOND LESSON, WITH DIAGRAMS 




DIRECTION} OF | WIND] 
Fij. 3 



trimmed flat aft) as will insure her progress through the 
water (Fig. 2). The boom is kept at a small angle with 
the keel, as shown in the cut. A well-balanced craft will 
sail within five points (56 15') of the wind. If the boat gets 
too close, an experienced eye will detect a ripple along the 
forward edge of the mainsail, owing to the fact that the 

iS5 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

wind is pressing the opposite side of the canvas. When 
the sail ''shakes" in this way, the helm should be put up 
by moving the tiller slightly toward the side upon which 
the wind blows, allowing the boat to go off a trifle, so that 
the sails will stand full. To keep a craft up to her work, 
without letting her shake or fall off, is one of the surest 
signs of a good helmsman, and many a race has been won, 
or bad weather saved, by skilful management in "beating 
to windward." A boat's sails can be trimmed flatter aft 
in smooth water than in rough, as it is impossible to sail 
so near the wind with a lumpy head-sea against you ; neither 
will she lie so close after reefing. 

Before the Wind 

When the sails receive the direct force of the wind from 
astern the boat is said to be ''running before it," or "scud- 
ding" (Fig. 3). With a sea on, and the boat first rising on 
top of the wave and then burying her bowsprit under at 
the next moment, this will be found the most difficult 
situation for steering. Great care should be taken not to 
let the main-boom jibe — that is, allowing it to swing around 
on the opposite side by the sail getting aback (the pressure 
coming on the forward surface) either by a shift of wind 
or bad steering, which would easily happen to a heedless 
yachtsman. Such a manceuver might carry away your 
mast in a jiffy. 

Tacking 

The process of putting a vessel about by working her 
up against the wind, so that the latter will act on the op- 

156 



SECOND LESSON, WITH DIAGRAMS 



^ 



posite side (Fig. 4). When 
the gear is all clear, the 
sails full, and plenty of head- 
way, give the order, "Ready Y 
about!" then put the helm 
down by pressing the tiller 
end a-lee (in an opposite di- 
rection to that from which 
the wind blows), and as 
the boat starts into the 
wind, "Ease of the jib- 
sheet!" 

When nearly head to the 
wind the jib is borne out to 
leeward and held aback to 
assist in sending the bows 
around. As the craft gets 
past the direction of the 
wind, and the mainsail be- 
gins to fill, pass the word 
to "Let draw !" and at once 
trim down the jib-sheet. If 
the boat gets sternway (goes 
stern foremost), the helm 
has to be shifted. Push- 
ing the main-boom over to 
windward as soon as the 
jib-sheets are let go will aid 
a sluggish craft in this ma- 
neuver. 

i57 






*A 




Fig. 4 



^ BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Jibing, or Wearing 
This is a delicate evolution, and should only be adopted, 
unless by the most experienced, in light summer winds 
(Fig. $).\ When the boat will not go about by turning to 
windward, the helm is put up, and she is allowed to go off 
before the wind. With the latter pretty well on the quarter, 
haul the main-boom rapidly amidships, and as the helm is 







direction! of wind fi 
Fig. 5 

gradually shifted the sail will take on the other tack, and 
the main-sheet may be slackened. If the boom is carelessly 
allowed to jibe, it will whip round with force enough to 
part the sheets or snap the mast. It is a good plan before 
jibing to settle or lower the peak of the sail. 

Reefing and Furling 

As soon as the boat begins to wet, it is a safe plan to 
reef, and always before bad weather sets in. Bring the boat 

158 



SECOND LESSON, WITH DIAGRAMS 

to the wind by putting the helm down. In reefing a jib 
lower away on the halyards so as to tie the reef -points be- 
neath it, lash the outer clew to the bowsprit, and shift the 
sheets. To shorten a mainsail lower it a trifle below the 
boom in order to get at the reef band; stretch the foot out 
by means of the reef pennant, make fast the tack, and pass 
the points last (tying with a square knot) either around the 
boom, or foot of sail, or to a jack-stay on the boom, accord- 
ing as the boat is rigged. The boat is kept hove-to (sta- 
tionary), head to the sea, by securing the tiller a-lee. In 
shaking out a reef (the boat being brought to the wind), 
first undo the points, then cast off the tack, and lastly the 
reef pennant. Always keep to windward of the sail. 

Getting Under Way 

Hoist the main-sail and loose the jib ; heave away on the 
cable until it is short. If in a tideway, cast the boat's head 
in the direction you want to go, by means of the rudder; 
break out the anchor and set the jib. If there is no tide- 
way, cast the boat's head with the sails. 

Anchoring 

On the approach of a thunder-shower it is advisable to 
go quickly to a harbor. If caught in a gale of wind, how- 
ever, on a bad shore, often the safest plan is to anchor at 
once, if you can find a good place. Let the boat come to 
the wind, haul down the jib, and as soon as she has stern- 
way let go the anchor, and pay out considerable cable be- 

i59 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

fore checking it; then veer away as much more as will 
hold her. Furl the mainsail and make everything snug. 

Some Practical Advice 

Be particular about the sails being properly set; get the 
wind out of a sail if you want to manage it. Do not sit 
on the gunwale, stand on the thwarts, or let go the tiller. 
If caught in a hard squall, put the helm down at once, let 
fly the sheet, and lower the sail. Do not overload a boat; 
keep weights amidships; a laden vessel carries her way 
(progress through the water) longer than a light one. En- 
deavor always to maintain steerage-way, and do not put 
the helm down suddenly or too far over. Abstain from all 
reckless exploits ; the best sailor is the one who shows the 
greatest caution. Be cool in emergencies. Keep the hal- 
yards and sheets clear. Do not attempt to navigate strange 
waters without a chart and compass. Learn to swim before 
sailing, and never play pranks in an open boat. 



Chapter XIII 

FITTING OUT A BOAT 

A GOOD many boys who could raise enough money to 
buy small pleasure craft are deterred from doing so 
by the expense of keeping them. The truth is, however, 
that an industrious and self-reliant boy can keep a boat 
himself, and need only in rare circumstances have recourse 
to a builder. One young friend of mine who bought a very 
able yawl-rigged sharpie for $150, because her owner was 
afraid of her, told me that it had cost him $100 for her keep 
during his first season with her. This included expendi- 
tures for fitting out and laying up, new sand-bags, changing 
the gear of the jib, and one or two other minor things. Now, 
if this young man had been really fond of working about his 
own boat he could have done the whole of this himself, 
except making the iron traveler for his jib. It is not always 
agreeable, of course, to paint, hammer, and scrape on your 
own boat when other fellows send theirs to a yard to be 
done up by a builder ; but a boy of independence ought not 
to mind it, especially when he remembers that by doing 
his own work he earns his boat. 

The Spring House -cleaning 

For the sake of convenience let us suppose that your boat 
is a small sloop, because whatever hints I offer for such a 

161 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

craft will answer equally well for a yawl, a cat-boat, a 
sharpie, or any other small craft. Last fall you took ad- 
vantage of a very high tide and hauled your boat on the 
beach. Then, with the aid of rollers and a friend or two, 
you hauled her high and dry. Perhaps you were lucky 
enough to have a horse; but if you didn't, you had a heavy 
block and rope, and you made one end of the rope fast to 
the bow, hitched the block to a tree, put your muscle on 
the other, and up she came. Then you took off the canvas 
and running rigging, and went ahead till your little boat 
showed only a bare mast, with the shrouds, and her bow- 
sprit. After that you covered her deck and cabin with 
heavy tarpaulin, lashed securely to keep out snow and rain. 

Now the sun is on this side of the equator, the days are 
balmy, and the water looks inviting. So you go down to 
the yacht and say to yourself, "It's about time to begin 
fitting out." And as you look her over you shake your 
head. Her sides and deck are dull, dingy, and mottled, 
and the mast looks as if it had never had a coat of varnish 
since it was made. But don't be discouraged. True 
enough, there's a good bit of work ahead of you, but it is 
work that you can take a pride in, and when it is done it 
will give you a great deal of pleasure. 

If you knew your business when you laid the boat up, 
you left a line rove through a block at the masthead. 
What for ? To hoist yourself up with when you go to work. 
Before you go aloft, however, you would better go below. 
I suppose your little ship carries lead ballast stowed away 
under her flooring, or at any rate she has pig-iron. When 
you took them out in the fall, of course you marked them 

162 



FITTING OUT A BOAT 



so that you now know just where each one belongs. Before 
putting them in place, you clean out the hold thoroughly. 
Then give it three coats of red lead. If you cannot afford 
red lead, use whitewash. You should also paint or white- 
wash the ballast before replacing it. Your friends who 
patronize the high-priced builders may laugh at you for 
using whitewash, but pay no attention to them. The 
bilges of your boat will be sweet and clean. 

Work on the Mast 

You next turn your attention to the mast, and the first 
thing you do is to make a boatswain's chair. This is very 
simple. Take a slab of wood, and bore two holes in each 
end. Then stretch two pieces of rope, about six feet long, 
over the board by running the ends through the holes and 
knotting them. Take one of the ends of your masthead 
gant-line, as it is called, and take a couple of half -hitches 
around the slings of your chair, as shown in Fig. i. You 
must take care to keep it evenly balanced. You will soon 
learn how. When you are ready to begin scraping the mast 
get some one to hoist you up to the masthead. Make the 
hauling part of your gant-line fast where you can reach it 
(under the slings of your chair will do), and you can lower 
yourself as you scrape down the mast. A sailor's jack- 
knife is a good thing to scrape spars with, but any instru- 
ment that will scrape off the black will do. If the mast is 
exceedingly dirty and rough, a smoothing-plane is some- 
times employed, but my advice to you is to avoid it. You 
cannot use a plane without weakening your mast a little. 

163 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Patience and a piece of glass are much better than a plane. 
After your mast, boom, and gaff are scraped, go over them 
with sand-paper, and rub them smooth. Use very coarse 
paper to begin with, and very fine for finishing. 

Now put on two coats of good spar varnish. Take my 
advice and buy a good article. There are several excellent 
brands in the market, and you can get one of them by 
going to a reputable dealer. When these two coats are 




Fig.t 




thoroughly dry, go over the spars once more with fine sand- 
paper, and then give them another coat of varnish. No 
crack racer just out of a yard will show a prettier polish than 
yours. Do not forget to scrape and varnish the hoops that 
hold the hoist of your mainsail to the mast. Then go 

164 



FITTING OUT A BOAT 



over all ,the wooden blocks of your boat. Scrape, sand- 
paper, and varnish them. It will be a tedious job, but you 
will be delighted with the results. 

Setting Up the Rigging 

Now you are ready to set up your rigging. If you have 
taken the shrouds off, you must now put them on again. 
Each one has a collar to go over the masthead and rest 
on the lower cap. The starboard shrouds go on first, and 
the port shrouds over them. The forest ay goes over all, 
and rests on the bolt to which the main halyard-block is 
attached. If your shrouds are set up by means of turn- 
buckles, you will not need any instruction as to how it is 
done. To "set up," by the way, means to make taut. If 
they are set up by old-fashioned lanyards and dead-eyes, 
see Fig. 2, which will show you how the lanyards are rove. 
The ends should be neatly half -hitched and seized down to 
the shroud with small stuff, tarred over. As a rule, how- 
ever, you will have none of this work to do, for it is cus- 
tomary to lay up sloops without stripping them of shrouds 
and forestay. Ordinarily your first business after scraping 
and varnishing spars will be to get the topmast aloft. The 
topmast is hoisted by means of a heel-rope rove through a 
block at the mainmast-head. As soon as your topmast-head 
is through the upper cap make fast the heel-rope, go aloft, 
and put on the iron band to which are attached the top- 
mast stay and the topmast shrouds. Hoist away the top- 
mast and ship the fid which holds it in place. Then you 
are ready to set up the stay and shrouds belonging to this 

165 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

spar. This is so simple a piece of work that you need only 
examine the rig of your boat to see how it is done. 

The next step is to get the gaff and boom aboard, ship 
them, and reeve the running rigging which belongs to them. 
As different styles and sizes of craft have different arrange- 
ments of running gear, it is impossible for me to give ex- 
plicit directions in this matter. I advise you, however, to 
go in for simplicity in rig, for every extra line means so 
much more trouble. Bear one thing always in mind: the 
hauling part of the throat-halyards of a mainsail should 
always come down on the port side, and of the peak-hal- 
yards on the starboard side. The jib-halyards also come 
down on the starboard side. 

Bending on the Mainsail 

You are now ready to bend on the mainsail, and this is 
the way to do it. Get the sail on deck, and stretch it along 
with the luff (the side which belongs next to the mast) forward 
and the head up. Begin by fastening the throat to the gaff, 
according to whatever plan it has been done before on your 
yacht. Hoist the gaff a foot or so clear of the boom. 
Stretch the head of the sail along the gaff, and make the 
peak fast, hauling it out taut so that the head of the sail 
lies flat against the gaff. Now make fast the head of the 
sail either by lacing or by robands (small ropes) passed 
through the jack-stay on the under side of the spar. Ro- 
bands and jack- stay are the only proper fitting for a yacht. 
As soon as the head of the sail is bent, make fast the luff 
to the uppermost mast-hoop; hoist away, and make fast 

1 66 



FITTING OUT A BOAT 



to the second, and so on, till all are fastened. Now make 
fast the tack at the jaws of the boom. Then haul out the 
clew good and taut, and make that fast. Now bend the 
foot of the sail to a neat wire jack-rope run through screw- 
eyes on top of the boom, and your mainsail is ready. Lower 
it, furl it, and hoist it well above the deck out of your way. 
Next bend on the jib. Unless your yacht is pretty large 
this is a very simple matter. Get the sail out on the bow- 
sprit, and make fast the tack. Hook on the halyards and 
hoist a little at a time, so that you can hook the hanks on 
the forestay as the sail goes up. After your hanks are 
hooked and sheets bent on, lower away and furl. 

Deck and Hull 

So far I have said nothing to you about your hull. I 
have omitted it for this reason : it is customary to complete 
all the work on the hull before reeving running rigging and 
bending on canvas. In a large yacht that is well enough; 
but in a little craft of which you are taking care yourself, I 
think you will find it profitable to leave at least the deck 
until the last, because you will not mar its handsome fresh 
appearance by tramping over it while working on rigging 
and sails. You might do the cleaning of it before going to 
work on these things, but my advice is to leave the varnish- 
ing till the last thing. It will have plenty of time to harden 
while you are getting your cabin fittings in shape. Another 
reason for doing the deck and hull painting early is that 
the boat may be launched before the running rigging and 
canvas are taken in hand. 

167 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

The first thing to do with the deck is to get the dingy 
varnish of last year off it. Don't paint your deck white or 
gray or green. Leave that sort of thing to the fishermen. 
Have a ' ' bright ' ' deck, with a bit of brass-work somewhere 
to set it off, if it's only a couple of brass cleats. Here are 
directions for cleaning the old varnish off: Dissolve from 
five to six pounds of soda in boiling-hot water, add a bucket- 
ful of unslacked lime, and spread the mixture on the deck 
after sundown. Before sunrise the next morning scrub the 
deck with a hard broom, and rinse it thoroughly. You 
may have to repeat this operation twice or three times, but 
when you are through your deck will look as if it were new. 
Now proceed with your varnishing and the painting of your 
hull. I presume that you have carefully examined the hull 
to see whether it needs calking anywhere. Paint it above 
the water-line with the best white lead, unless you prefer 
to have your boat black. White is prettier for a small craft, 
and, strange as it may seem, much easier to keep clean. 
Moreover, if your paint gets scratched anywhere, you can- 
not put on a daub of black without its showing, by reason 
of the dullness which comes over black when it is old, so 
that the glistening new spot stands out plainly. This is 
not the case with white paint. The hull below the water- 
line should be coated with first-class metallic paint. 



Chapter XIV 

SAILS FOR OPEN BOATS 

SMALL open boats are designed, in a greater or less 
degree, to be impelled on the water by oars, and are 
distinguished by different names according to their use, 
size, and model. Among such are life-boats, launches, 
dingies, gigs, jolly-boats, pinnaces, yawls, barges, feluccas, 
sharpies, whale-boats, long-boats, cutters, dories, canoes, 
punts, bateaux, skiffs, etc. Many of these craft are pro- 
vided with light, portable sails and masts that can be 
readily rigged up when occasion requires. Boats, there- 
fore, that are not specially intended for sailing purposes are 
usually equipped with a handy suit of sails, care being 
taken to choose a style that is likely to insure speed and 
weatherly qualities, though often local prejudices and the 
"custom" of the waters prevail as to the kind of rig. 

All sails have either three or four sides. The former of 
these are sometimes spread by a stay, as a jib, or by a 
yard, as lateen sails, or by a mast, as leg-of-mutton sails, 
in which cases the foremost edge is attached throughout its 
whole length to the stay, yard, or mast. The latter, or 
those of four sides, are extended by yards or by gaffs and 
booms, as the principal sails of a ship or schooner. They 
12 169 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

all acquire their names from the mast, yard, or stay upon 
which they are extended or made fast. The accompany- 
ing cut (Fig. i), showing jib and mainsail, will aid the 
reader in learning the names of the different parts. The 
upper edge, A, is called the head; B, the leach; C, the foot; 
D, the luff; the corner, e, is called the peak; /, the nock; 
g, the clew; h, the tack; the dotted rows are the reef points; 
O, the boom; R, the gaff; S, the stay. 

Spritsail Rig 

These sails have four sides (Fig. 2). The luffs are se- 
cured to the mast by lacings, or pieces of rope-yarn, rove 
through holes made in the sails about three feet apart, and 
the heads are raised and extended by sprits (small, tough 
poles) that cross the sail diagonally from the mast to the 
peak. The lower end of the sprit has a blunt point, which 
rests in a rope becket or loop that encircles the mast like 
a slip-knot, and can be fixed in position without slipping. 
If there is any tendency, however, for the becket to slide, 
a little wetting will prevent it. One advantage of the sprit- 
sail is that it can easily be brailed up alongside of the mast, 
with a line leading through a block on the mast and through 
the clew and around the sail. Pieces of cord are sewn in 
the seam across the sail, near the foot, for reefing points. 

Cat Rig 

Purely an American idea, and for narrow and crowded 
waters, bays, and harbors is unsurpassed (Fig. 3). The mast 

170 






SAILS FOR OPEN BOATS 



is stepped right in the bows of the boat, and carries one sail 
(secured to mast-hoops), with a boom and gaff. These boats 
work with great quickness, are easily managed by one per- 
son, and have few equals in going into the ''eye" of the 
wind. 





Fig. I 



Fig. 3 




Fig. 2 




Fig. 4 



171 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Balance Lug 

These sails are four-sided, secured to a yard which hangs 
obliquely to and is balanced on the mast, part of the sail 
being in front and part behind (Fig. 4) . The boom and the 
yard are of about equal lengths. The tack of a lug-sail is 
usually a loop on the boom, caught into a hook on the mast 
near its heel, and is made fast before the sail is set. When 
a boom is not used, as is often the case with a single sail, 
the tack of the lug is secured to the weather-bow. While 
this is a popular rig and has many good sailing points, it 
suffers an inconvenience on account of the yard having 
to be shifted to leeward of the mast in tacking, termed 
''dipping the lug." 

Sloop Rig 

Undoubtedly the handsomest of all rigs, though it is not 
so convenient for single-handed sailing, two people being 
required to sail them properly (Fig. 5). For small boats 
the sails consist of mainsail and jib, and sometimes a top- 
sail, the former secured to a gaff, and with or without a 
boom, as preferred. The bowsprit is an adjustable one. 
For cutters and small yachts this style of rig is the most 
common, and is well adapted for racing craft, as a great 
spread of canvas can be carried. 

Mizzen Rig 

Quite a small sail, as is shown in a number of the draw- 
ings, secured to a mast stepped in the stern of the boat, 

172 



SAILS FOR OPEN BOATS 




Fig. 5 




Fig. 6 




s r ! =& i 



Fig. 7 






Fig. 9 



Fig. 10 



near the rudder-head, and may be either a lug, or a sprit sail, 
or a fore-and-aft sail (Figs. 2, 4, 9). Where the waters are 
likely to be lumpy and the winds gusty and strong, the main 
and mizzen rig will be found the most useful (the mainsail 

i73 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

being a balance lug or other sail), and is undoubtedly the 
best for single-handed work in open waters. The mizzen 
is of great help in beating to windward, and should set as 
flat as possible ; and whenever it is necessary for any reason 
to lower the mainsail, the mizzen will keep the boat head to 
wind and sea. 

Schooner Rig 

A rig very common for long open boats (Fig. 6) . It con- 
sists of two masts and temporary bowsprit for the jib. Both 
the mainsail and the foresail are extended by gaffs instead 
of sprits. The mainsail usually has a boom, while the fore- 
sail is often without one, though this is optional. The jib 
can be dispensed with by stepping the bowsprit in the bows 
of the boat. 

Sharpies 

These craft are long, flat - bottomed, draw only a few 
inches of water, and are best suited for shallow sounds and 
bays (Fig. 7). In smooth waters, sailing on the wind, they 
are unquestionably among the swiftest boats afloat. The 
best specimens are to be found along the North Carolina 
coast. They have long masts, with one or two sails of 
peculiar shape, which are made as nearly flat as possible 
by being extended near the foot by sprits, as shown in the 
illustration. On the after-part of the sail is a small yard, 
or club, to which the sprit is made fast. The reefing is 
done along the luff, the reef bands running parallel to the 
mast. 

174 






SAILS FOR OPEN BOATS 



Leg-of-mutton Rig 

A very safe, simple, and handy rig for boys (Fig. 8). The 
sail is triangular, like a jib, and the peak is hauled almost 
to the masthead, with one halyard. It is specially adapted 
to smooth-water sailing for small boats and in light winds 
where reefing is not likely to become necessary. One or 
two masts can be used, and booms rigged if desired. 

The Sliding-gunter 

The principle of this rig is that the yard to which the sail 
is laced slides up and down on the mast, two iron hoops or 
travelers forming the connection (Fig. 9). It is not a 
favorite sail in going before the wind, on account of its 
narrow head, but has advantages when close-hauled, and 
is preferable to a leg-of-mutton rig for sea work and in 
reefing. 

Lateen Sails 

These sails are common on the Mediterranean, and are 
familiar to all who have seen pictures of the East (Fig. 10). 
The sail is triangular, and is bent to a long tapering yard, 
sometimes twice the length of the boat, which hoists to 
a strong short mast that rakes forward. 

There is a variety of odd and original rigs for small boats 
which are not in common use. Those mentioned are the 
simplest forms, and have stood satisfactory trial by boat- 
men generally in various parts of the world. A rig with a 
single sail is always the handiest and safest when one has 

i75 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

to "work ship" unassisted. A properly fitted center- 
board will add to the sailing qualities of an open boat, and 
when it can be put in without taking up too much space 
or being in the way of the oarsrnen, it should be done. The 
ballast should be inside and easily removable; bags of 
sand are the most convenient. When about to fit out a 
craft, remember that a smaller amount of canvas in one 
piece is more effective than a larger amount divided up. 



Chapter XV 

RIGS AND MAKESHIFTS OF THE SMALL BOAT 

WHILE a boy may not have occasion or the good for- 
tune to handle or own a large boat, he is almost cer- 
tain, if he lives near water, to have something to do with a 
bateau, skiff, or small boat of some character. Or perchance 
he may own a rowboat of the St. Lawrence-skiff variety, 
and may wish to put a sail on it. Now there is nothing 
more clumsy and dangerous than a badly rigged small boat. 
By badly rigged is not meant only the boat whose spars 
are imperfect, or other things connected with her rig radi- 
cally wrong, but also the boat that carries a rig that may 
be perfectly suitable for another class, but is entirely out 
of place in one of this size. A thing to be avoided in all 
small boats is unnecessary rigging; too many halyards and 
sheet -ropes are in the way, and where the rigging is on a 
very small scale are very apt to get tangled or out of order 
when most wanted. So it may readily be seen that, for in- 
stance, the jib-and-mainsail rig of a twenty-five-foot boat, 
with its accompanying number of sheets, stays, and hal- 
yards, would be totally out of place in a fourteen-foot ba- 
teau. The whole attention of the natives or "shell-backs" 
in or near our fishing villages has been devoted to the origi- 
nating of makeshifts for the avoidance of everything that 

,177 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



makes the construction and handling of a boat more dif- 
ficult. Their idea seems to have been that anything that 
could be accomplished without the aid of mechanical means, 
simply by the use of a little extra muscle, had better be 
done that way. 

It might be said that in the small boat are seen the vari- 
ous rigs, in their simplicity, whose principles have been 




<*■'-% 




ST. LAWRENCE SKIFF WITH FORE- 
AND-AFT SAIL 



elaborated and altered to meet the different conditions re- 
quired. Taking them in order of simplicity, we first come 
to the "leg-o'-mutton" rig. Here only two spars are used, 
and no halyards. In No. i (Fig. i) the boom has no jaws, 
and is held in place at the mast by catching the projecting 
end in a sling, and by poking the other end through a 
cringle in the leech. The only lacing required is to fasten 

178- 



RIGS AND MAKESHIFTS 



the sail to the mast, the sail only being fastened to the boom 
(more properly sprit) at the points mentioned. If it is 
found to bag, the remedy is to shorten the sling until the 
sail sets flatly. This can never be entirely accomplished, 
as the sail, being supported by the boom only at the ex- 
treme outer end and the mast at the other, is very apt to 
stretch in a stiff breeze. 



To Make the Sail Set Flat 

Advancing a step, we come to the remedy of this trouble 
(No. 2, Fig. i). It is the introduction of jaws at the 
mast, instead of the rope sling. The tendency to bag is 
removed, as the sail is fastened at frequent intervals by 




Fig. I 

lacing to the boom, along which it may be kept stretched 
tightly. Also the tendency of the boom to slide forward is 
effaced as it butts up against the mast. In this method a 
much lighter spar can be used, as the strain is made to 

179 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



come more or less throughout its whole length, while in 
the first-mentioned it comes wholly at the ends. The prin- 
cipal objection against the "leg-o'-mutton" rig in general 
is the great length of mast required. This is one of its 
most serious drawbacks, and the other is the inability to 
reef the sail. Of course, modifications of this rig have been 
made, introducing halyards and supplying reef points, but 
a discussion of that is beyond the scope of this paper, such 
modifications being rarely seen on a small boat. 




Fig. 2 



As mention has been made of lacing a sail to spars, per- 
haps it would be just as well to digress a little here, and 
speak of three well-known methods of lacing. The first, 
A, (Fig. 2), is the simplest and about as effective as any. 
The sail is fastened to the boom by an ' ' over-and-over " 
lacing. In B the sail is held by a series of " half -hitches," 
and in the third, or C, the lacing runs through eyes screwed 
into the boom. 

180 



RIGS AND MAKESHIFTS 



A Shorter Mast 

The next step in rendering the rig more compact is to 
shorten the mast. This can only be done at the cost of an 
increase in the complexity of the rigging. A new spar is 
introduced, and the sail is cut down from a triangle to an 
area having four sides. Some means had to be found to 
support the upper edge, and a study of the last three sail 
plans will show some of the methods in use (Fig. i). Nos. 
3 and 4 are nearly equal, as far as simplicity goes, though Fig. 
3 is simpler on account of the absence of lacings on the upper 
edge. This is commonly known as the "spritsail," and, 
taking all things into consideration, it seems to be the most 
efficient and handiest of all the rigs. Of course, it is not as 
efficient in some respects as the sail in Fig. 5, the same 
trouble being experienced on the top edge as in the "leg-o'- 
mutton' ' — bagging — but it possesses the advantage of 
greater simplicity. If we examine this rig we will readily 
see that it is any large fore-and-aft sail reduced to its sim- 
plest form. We find, instead of the gaff and the two hal- 
yards to hold the sail up, all this is replaced by the simple 
device of the pole (sprit), one end of which is stuck in a 
cringle in the upper corner of the sail, and the other caught 
in a sling. The sail does not move on the mast, and is 
laced to it. The boom has jaws at the mast, and the sail 
is laced on, or sometimes the device shown in No. 1 is re- 
sorted to, though the former method will be found to make 
this sail set better. There are no reef points, and the only 
way to reef is to drop the peak by removing the sprit. Of 
course, it must be understood that this rig is not at all 

181 



BOATING BQOK FOR BOYS 

practicable in a boat of any size, but in any of about the 
size of a rowboat it will be found to be most convenient. 



A Yard 

In the next device (No. 4) we approach nearer to the 
regular ' ' fore-and-aft " sail. There can be seen the introduc- 
tion of a yard to which the upper edge of the sail is laced, 
as to the ordinary gaff. No halyards are used, and the 
yard is lashed to the mast, and held at the proper angle to 
keep the sail flat by a rope fastening its lower extremity 
to the mast. The only objection to this rig is that the yard 
has a tendency to give and to permit the sail to bag. This 
rig is frequently seen on duck-boats. There is no method 
of reefing except dropping the yard, unless reef points are 
introduced. 

The Fore-and-aft Sail 

Taking a step further we come to the "fore-and-aft" sail 
proper, No. 5 (Fig. 1 ) . Here we find the introduction of a gaff, 
which might be looked upon as the shortening of the yard in 
the preceding rig. There are jaws on both boom and gaff, 
and the sail is movable on the mast, being usually held on 
by loops, the gaff moving up and down. To take the place 
of the lashings in the preceding rigs, ropes (halyards) fast- 
ened to this spar and passing through blocks at the mast- 
head and so down have been introduced. Because of the 
ability to hoist and lower the sail, reefing is accomplished 
by a row, or rows, of little ropes (reef points), by which it is 
tied down, thus reducing it to almost any size desired ac- 

182 



RIGS AND MAKESHIFTS 



cording to the number of reefs tied in. Most small sails 
of this character have at least one row, and some two, 
though the small cat-boat usually has three. In a previ- 
ous chapter a description of how to tie a reef in the sail 
of a larger boat was given. The principle is the same in 
all-sized sails, and perhaps it will only be necessary to add 
here that the reef points are not tied around the boom but 
around the part of the sail taken in by the reef (D, Fig. 
2). The stop at the outer cringle, however, is tied around 
the boom. A simple means of reefing, which may be used 
in all the rigs except the first, is by rows of holes of the same 
character as the leech cringle ; and after pulling the sail down 
to the proper distance (most sails laced to the mast can, with 
a little care, be moved), hold the reef in by a single lacing 
through them, in the same manner as the sail is laced on in 
'A (Fig. 2). A stop at the leech is required, as in the pre- 
ceding method. 

Rigging a Jib 

Many combinations are made with the jib. There seems 
to be about only one common way of rigging a jib for a 
small boat. A pretty clear idea may be gained from the 
sketch (Fig. 1). As may be seen, no stay is used, the sail 
usually being bound with a rope, which gives it sufficient 
strength; no halyard is used either, the jib being lashed to 
the mast and lowered and hoisted when it is stepped or 
unstepped. The lower edge is laced to a boom, which is 
secured to the bow with a lashing about four inches long, 
a third of its length projecting. The sheet -rope is fastened 
to the inner extremity. The most common combination 

183 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

is the jib and spritsail, generally known as the "skiff rig" 
(see sketch). It is quite often used with one of the "leg- 
o'-mutton" sails. The most general use of the "leg-o'- 
mutton" types, however, is either two together, as in the 
sharpie rig, or separately as the only sail in the boat. 

The Spars 

Perhaps a few words on the spars would be in place here. 
First taking the stick itself ; it should always be a straight- 
grained piece of wood, as free from knots as possible, and 
well seasoned. The several spars require different degrees 
of tapering. The aim of the taper is to reduce weight, by 
concentrating the greatest amount of material at the point 
most strained, and removing the surplus. The mast should 
leave little taper, except in the "leg-o' -mutton" — where it 
is tapered very much toward the head — and ought to be 
nearly the same size throughout its whole length, the thick- 
est part, if any, from a short distance above the deck or 
brace to a few inches below. It should have a slight taper 
at the head and a pretty good-sized one at the heel where 
it enters the step. The boom should have a slight gradual 
taper, the thickest part being between a quarter and a 
third of the distance from the mast to the end of the spar, 
and the mast end much heavier than the other. The 
making of the jaws has been described in a previous chapter. 
The thickest part of the gaff should be about a third of the 
distance from the mast. The sprit should be about the 
same thickness throughout its entire length. In the yard 
rig the thickest part of the yard should be in about 

184 



RIGS AND MAKESHIFTS 



the same relative position to the mast as it is in the 
gaff. 

Turning now to the rigging of the boat; the only one of 
the rigs requiring halyards is the fore-and-aft sail No. 5 (Fig. 
1 ) . The method of threading can readily be understood from 
a study of the sketch. No. 5 (Fig. 3) is only practicable for 




Fig. 3 



a small boat, but No. 6 is more suitable for a larger one. 
About the only other thing requiring mention in the rigging 
are the different methods of reeving the sheet-rope. No. 1 
and No. 2 are the simplest, the only difference between them 
being the positions of the fastened ends. In the first the 
end is secured to the boat, and in the second it is fastened to 
the boom. The device shown in the third sketch is a trifle 
more complicated. The fourth one is the most intricate 
of all, but has the least drag on the sheet, as every time the 
rope passes over a wheel in a block by so much is the pull 
diminished. This rig requires the introduction of a double 
13 185 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

block on the traveler, and perhaps a snatch-block to ease 
the pull when close-hauled. 

Blocks 

As blocks have been mentioned, perhaps it would be as 
well to say that small galvanized-iron blocks can be pro- 
cured at very little cost, and will accomplish all that is re- 
quired of them. Of course, if the boat's owner is inclined 
to spend more money, wooden blocks will make the rigging 
neater and run easier. Travelers are used to fasten sheet - 
ropes to the boat, and may be made in two ways, out of 
either iron or rope. The iron traveler in this case is an 
iron rod carrying a ring to which the block is attached, 
bent down at the ends, which are threaded and fastened 
with nuts through the stern. The rope traveler is a strong 
cotton rope, the ends fastened on each side of the boat, and 
the rope passing through a ring on the lower side of the 
block. In the rigging may be also included the cleats for 
belaying the halyards and sheets. For the halyards, and for 
purposes where it is desirable to fasten the rope securely and 
for some time, a cleat shaped like E (Fig. 2) is best ; but if it is 
desired to fasten the rope temporarily, or to use it as a 
means of breaking the pull on the rope, the jam-cleat F is 
the most efficient, a turn or two causing the rope to jam. 
Leaving the rigging, we will turn to the boat proper. 

Center-board and Keel 

There are three methods of keeping a boat from making 
leeway (going sideways) — by a center-board, lee-board, or 

186 




A SHARPIE-RIGGED OYSTER-BOAT 




SKIFF-RIGGED BATEAU 




A DOUBLE-END CLAM-BOAT 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

keel. The last is impracticable for a small boat, and will 
not be considered. There are two varieties of center- 
boards in use — the ordinary drop pattern, as used in the 
larger boats, and the dagger. The drop is generally tri- 
angular in shape, held in place by a pin at the lower corner 
of the trunk passing through the apex. The dagger is only 
a board or board shaving a projecting cap on the top, so 
that it will not fall through the trunk, and is lifted entirely 
clear when not wanted. The drop pattern is a little more 
convenient, but somewhat difficult to make. The drop is 
just as efficient, and can never get out of order, while easily 
replaced if broken. . It is the one most used by the "natives." 
The only danger of this board, and one that must be al- 
ways borne in mind when sailing in waters where bars 
abound, is that it cannot raise up when it strikes an ob- 
struction as the drop will, and, if you are not watchful, may 
upset your boat. The lee-board seems only a miserable 
apology at the best, and is only pardonable when you do 
not desire to cut a hole in your boat's bottom to build a 
trunk. The only practicable method is to make a movable 
board with clamps that fit over the gunwale, and move it 
to the lee side as the boat's course changes. In a previous 
chapter there has been described how to make a rudder 
with tiller and yoke-line attachments, and it will be un- 
necessary to go into details here. The yoke-lines are some- 
times the only way of steering in some types of boats, as, 
for example, the St. Lawrence skiffs. In the sea skiffs and 
river bateaux there is an extremely simple means of steer- 
ing by an oar. It is held in two places, either in a lock or 
groove cut in the stern-board or under the lee counter. 



RIGS AND MAKESHIFTS 



The stern oar is used in much the same manner as a rudder, 
but the lee oar is kept out of the water most of the time, 
only being immersed when the boat begins to fetch up, and 
taken out as soon as this tendency is corrected. The reason 
of this is that the oar, being rested against the gunwale, 
projects over the side at quite an angle from the fore-and- 
aft, and hence, if kept in all the time, it would throw the 
boat's head off. 

There is quite an extensive use of the jib in this class of 
boats. The jib can be made to exert quite an influence on 
the boat's speed, and if the sails are nearly balanced the 
boat can be held on a straight course by proper trimming. 
It is only by experience that the trim of the jib can be 
learned, as it depends on the balancing of the sails, on how 
close you are sailing, and on the strength of the wind. 
When going about let slack the jib-sheet just before the 
boat begins to round up, trimming it again when on the 
other tack. If the jib is out too far it has a tendency to 
flap; and if too flat, there is a tendency of the boat's head to 
fall off the wind. 



Chapter XVI 

A RACING CAT-BOAT AND ITS CARE 

THE popular idea that a racing cat-boat is an expensive 
luxury has doubtless arisen from the cost entailed upon 
those who keep a racing boat, and either cannot or will not 
themselves attend to the labor connected with keeping such 
a craft in the best of condition. Many boat owners after 
entering for a race put their boats in the hands of boat- 
builders to be gotten into condition. 

To these men are usually intrusted, besides getting the 
boat into condition, the procuring and training of the crew ; 
and if the race is important, the command of that, too. 
Most likely the crew will be composed of rivermen, amply 
compensated for their services, and an amateur or two, 
one of whom, perhaps, is the owner. Of course all this 
costs, the builder having to be paid for his labor of get- 
ting the boat ready, and if he wins the race he naturally 
expects something extra. 

There are some owners, however, who attend to all these 
matters personally, and their expenses are reduced to a 
very low figure. 

A few words may be added about the care of the sail. 
Suppose that the boat has been thoroughly overhauled and 
renovated as described in Chapter XIII. It may be added 

190 



A RACING CAT-BOAT AND ITS CARE 

that a sail should never be rolled up when wet. Nothing 
will rot and mildew it more quickly. If you are compelled 
to put the boat up for the night when the sail is damp, tie 
a few stops around it at intervals, and allow it to hang 
loosely between them, just using a sufficient number to 
prevent the sail from thrashing about in case of a strong 
wind during the night. As soon as possible after a rain 
hoist the sail and let it dry. The quickest way to dry a 
sail is to hoist it to the full extent along the mast and 
drop the peak, and raise the boom quite high with the 
toppen lift. This will cause the sail to bag greatly, and the 
wind shaking it will soon dry the moisture out. 

Cleaning the Bottom 

Your boat has been in the water for some time, and you 
have entered it for a race. The first thing to do in this 
case is to examine its bottom. This may be effected by 
selecting a shelving beach and running your boat as far 
up as possible at high water, having previously removed 
all extra weights. Secure two guy-ropes to the masthead, 
and drive stakes on each side of the boat about twenty 
feet off. Fasten the ropes to these stakes, so when the tide 
goes out they will hold the boat on an even keel, and on 
the receding of the tide it will be an easy matter to examine 
the under body of the boat. 

If the bottom is so foul as to require repainting, construct 
ways and haul out, scraping and painting as in the be- 
ginning of the season. If the bottom should need only a 
slight cleaning and polishing, slacken one of the guy-ropes 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

so that the boat will rest on its side, and scrub clean with 
water and a stiff brush, polishing with cloths. After this 
side is finished pull the boat up to an even keel, and slack 
away the other rope so it will rest on the other side, thus 
permitting you to get at the rest of the under- water body. 




METHOD OF SCRAPING BOTTOM 



STEPPING MAST WITH SHEARS 



If you are so fortunate as to possess a racing sail and spars, 
unship the old ones and ship the racing sails and spar. 
If you have not, your boat is about ready. Remove all 
extra weights (except ballast), and if movable ballast is per- 
mitted take it aboard. Examine all your rigging carefully, 
and do not omit to go over it again just before starting in 
the race. All this should be finished the day before the 
race. 

Training the Crew 

Ranking almost equal in importance to the condition of 
the boat is the training of the crew. The length of time 
required before the race to get the crew in condition will, 
of course, depend upon the knowledge of the individuals. 

192 



A RACING CAT-BOAT AND ITS CARE 

If the members have a fair idea of their business, a few hours 
before the race will be sufficient; but if they do not, the 
sooner the training commences the better. For a racing 
crew to be handy, every man in it must know his especial 
part in all the manceuvers, and when a manceuver is or- 
dered he must do it quickly and with the least confusion 
possible, and not try in an excess of zeal to attempt to do 
more than his part, unless so ordered. Above all, every 
man must obey implicitly and without question any order 
of the captain, for no boat can be handled properly by its 
crew when anybody but the captain is permitted to give 
orders. As to the number of the crew, the average cat -boat 
of, let us say, eighteen or twenty feet will require a helms- 
man, usually captain, sheet-tender, center-board tender, 
and a man to look after the halyards. If your boat is so 
small as not to have so many men allotted to it, the center- 
board and halyards may be tended by one man. If, on the 
contrary, more than the requisite number are allowed, 
take the extra men, if the day is windy, as ballast only, or 
if movable ballast is permitted, as shifters. 

Do not divide the work up into small parcels and give 
each one a little to do ; it creates too much moving about 
when under way, a thing not in the least desirable. You 
might, however, have an understanding with them as to 
what they are to do in an emergency, such as taking in or 
shaking out a reef. Here a slight digression on taking in a 
reef when under way may be pardoned. When under way 
drop the sail so that the desired reef points are about in a 
line with the boom, and when they are in the right position 
let the boat come up into the wind so that the boom will 

i93 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



be inboard. Then order the crew to spread along the boom, 
and when the bowman has fastened the desired cringle at 
the jaws of the boom, have them catch hold of the sail, 
stretch it along the boom, the sheet-tender making fast the 
cringle on the leach (outer edge) to the boom. As soon as 
this is accomplished tie the reef in. When all the reef 
points are tied, let the boat's head fall off and continue on 
course, as the peak and throat may be properly hoisted, 
especially when you are strongly manned, nearly as well 
under way as when in the wind. This operation, so long 
on paper, may, with a well- trained crew, be accomplished 
almost in the time it takes to read this. Shaking out a reef 
is a very easy matter, and will need no mention. The whole 
aim in the training of a racing crew may be summed up as 
follows: Every man to know his part and do it when re- 
quired. The first thing after explaining clearly to each man 
his particular station is to get the crew accustomed to the 
boat. A good way to do this is to take a spin at every op- 
portunity with them over the course, making a careful note 
yourself of the bearings of the different marks by objects on 
shore, so that you will not lose valuable time in the race in 
finding them. Do not allow any lagging in these spins, for 
it is liable to lead to a blunder in the race, but maintain the 
same discipline as you would at that time. 

At the Start 

The hour of the race is at hand. Your crew is aboard, 
and after a careful examination of the running rigging, 
blocks, mast -hoops, sail and its lacings, you set out for the 

194 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

starting-point. Arriving there, procure your racing num- 
ber, and after fastening it upon the sail, take your boat 
out and cruise around in the vicinity of the starting-line, 
using this opportunity to practise your crew in tacking, 
jibing, and other evolutions likely to be encountered dur- 
ing a race. Upon hearing the preparatory gun, it is best 
to get near the line. If you feel confident that you have 
your boat well in hand, you might manoeuver for a flying 
start, but if you are a little uncertain, it is best to secure a 
good position, and let your sail flap in the wind close as 
the boat lies stationary close to the line. 

If the first leg is close-hauled or a thrash to windward, 
it is advantageous to get away as near the front as pos- 
sible, as the boats slower in starting usually get off in a 
bunch and cut up each other's wind. If the start is off the 
wind this is not so important. A flying start is very de- 
sirable, but it requires careful calculation and handling to 
bring your boat to the line at the right moment ; and if by 
some mistake you should cross a few seconds before the 
gun, you would lose lots of valuable time in recrossing again. 
In a one-gun start the importance of getting off quickly is 
greater than in a two-gun. Bang! goes the starting gun. 
You are over the line, close-hauled most likely, on the star- 
board tack (on account of having right of way). Do not 
make the common mistake of hauling your boom in nearly 
amidships and jamming your boat up into the wind; it 
will not pay. It increases the drift, and your boat will not 
"foot" it as fast as one that is allowed a little more leeway. 
Again, do not let your boat sag off too far or a heavy gust 
may cause a "knockdown," with the consequent loss of 

196 



A RACI NG CAT-BOAT AND ITS CARE 

much ground. Always be ready to luff and take advantage 
of any little gust of wind, and it is astonishing the amount 
of windward gain a clever sailor makes in this way. This 
does not mean to luff so much at every puff as to dump the 
wind out of your sail, or attempt to sail so close to the wind 
as not to get its full power. 

The amount of sail carried should be proportionate to the 
wind; it is a great mistake to oversail a boat so that it 
wallows through the seas, necessitating luffing or dumping 
out the wind in the squalls and lowering of the peak when 
running before the wind. The angle of heel at which your 
boat sails best can only be determined by experiment, and 
it is a great blunder to carry sail so as to heel her to a greater 
one. When sailing close-hauled or to windward, all ob- 
structions that may catch the wind should be placed below 
deck if possible, or if it should be necessary to have the 
crew up to windward, let them lie close to the deck. (See 
sketch of start.) 

Distributing Weight 

As to the distribution of weight, aim to have your boat 
sail on the proper water-line at all times; do not allow 
your crew, when beating to windward, to pile aft, so as to 
escape spray, and so lift the bow out ; at the same time do 
not get your bow too deeply in. When ready to go about 
(go on other tack), give the order "hard alee," and let go 
the tiller, the unbalanced action of the wind on the sail 
will bring the boat up into the wind with a sweeping curve, 
and then use the rudder to put her on the other tack. 

In this way you will go about easily, and will not lose 

197 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

headway, as is the case when the tiller is jammed over at 
the beginning. Immediately on hearing the order ''hard 
alee," the crew should stand ready to shift the ballast, 
and as the boat rounds up should change it rapidly, so as 
to have it to windward when the sail fills on the other 
tack. A manceuver of the same character should be ex- 
ecuted when luffing around a mark. 

Always be sure before going about that you have plenty 
of board down. We will suppose that you have luffed 
around the first mark, and the next leg is a run with the 
wind aft of abeam. This will not be particularly exact- 
ing, the only points to keep in mind being to have your 
water-line on proper trim, a full sail, and a straight course. 

Jibing Around the Mark 

The second mark will have to be jibed around. This 
is a manceuver your crew cannot be too well drilled in. 
Give yourself plenty of room, and do not attempt to shave 
too closely. I witnessed last summer the capsizing of a 
boat resulting from this desire. 

The mark was a buoy placed near a heavy stake, and the 
helmsman of the boat, wishing to make a close shave, steered 
too near it, and in passing fouled his sheet-rope on the stake 
before jibing; the result was the boat became unmanage- 
able, and its momentum carrying it around jibed the sail 
over, causing an upset. As you near the mark have the 
man forward stand by the peak-halyard, ready to let go if 
anything happens wrong. As you are about to turn, have 
the board raised and come around with an easy sweep ; but 






A RACING CAT-BOAT AND ITS CARE 

not so rapidly that the sheet-tender cannot haul all the 
sheet -rope in. The sheet should be brought in with a 
steady pull, and allowed to run out evenly. If any amount 




FINISHING BEFORE THE WIND 



of slack is given as the sail goes over, the wind on catching 
on the other side, if it does not capsize the boat or carry 
away something, will bring her head up into the wind with 

199 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

such force that it will be some seconds before you can over- 
come it with the rudder. 

Running Free 

The remaining leg of our course we will suppose to be 
nearly free. When running this way the board should be 
kept up and all the weight in the boat aft, as a boat under 
the great pressure exerted by the wind when running this 




PEAK LOWERED TO AVOID GOOSE-WING 

way has a tendency to dig its nose under. It is not neces- 
sary for your crew to lie down now, and you may allow 
them to stand and stretch themselves, as whatever wind 
they will catch will help the boat instead of retarding, as 
in the other cases. (See sketch of finish.) The only thing 
to be looked out for when running free, or nearly so, is a 
"goose-wing." This happens when the wind is so strong 
as to cause the boom to jump up parallel to the mast and 
the sail wrap around it. If when running before the wind 

200 



A RACING CAT-BOAT AND ITS CARE 

you find your boom is jumping too much, lowering the peak 
a little will lessen the pressure on the sail and stop it. 

It is impossible to prophesy the result of the race, but I 
can say that it depends equally on your boat and your 
management, with the training of the crew a close second. 

Righting a Capsized Boat 

A few hints on how to right a capsized boat may not be 
out of place here. If you should happen to be near some 
boat that has capsized you will, doubtless, feel it your 
duty to assist the unfortunate. It is not a difficult matter 
to right a boat when you go about it in the proper way. 



RIGHTING A CAPSIZED BOAT 



Run your boat alongside of the capsized one's mast and 
strip its sail off, unfastening the throat and peak-blocks, 
unreeving the sheet-rope, and cutting the lashings of the 
14 201 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



sail to the mast-hoops. (Be careful that the sail does not 
sink.) Put your boat in a position alongside the bottom 
of the upturned boat, and unfasten your throat-halyard 
block from the gaff. Fasten this to the mast of the cap- 
sized boat, as shown in sketch. It will then be an easy 
matter to pull the boat up to an even keel, when she may 
be pumped out. 

Winter Quarters 

We will suppose the autumn to have arrived and you 
are ready to put your boat in winter quarters. After re- 
moving ballast, mast, sail, spars, etc., construct ways as 
shown in the sketch of winter quarters. They consist 
principally of two skids, on which the boat is run and hauled 
out, but if you care for the condition of the boat's bottom, 
a cradle had better be made following the idea shown in 
sketch. Pull the boat out to the end of the skids, and if it 
is desirable to get it farther away from the water, lay beams 
in front of the skids, and pull the boat on them. When 
free of the skids take them up and lay them in front of the 
beams, repeating this operation until the boat is at the dis- 
tance desired. After removing everything, cover the deck 
and cockpit with canvas The sail should be sprinkled with 
salt and a little lime — not too much or it will cause rotting, 
the lime being used to bleach the sail only. This should 
be rolled up and packed away in a dry place, and the mast 
and spars should also be under shelter, but not where there 
is too great heat. 

We have followed the fortunes of our boat from the be- 
ginning of the season until the end. We have confined 

202 



A RACING CAT-BOAT AND ITS CARE 

ourselves to the mere mention of some points on which 
whole volumes could be written. It is the purpose of this 
chapter to treat this subject in only the broadest fashion, 
and simply to give general hints for the use of the beginner 
in one of the most manly of sports. 



Chapter XVII 

MARLIN-SPIKE SEAMANSHIP 

ROPES may be joined to one another either by knotting 
. or by splicing. If the rope belongs to the running 
rigging (such as halyards, sheets, etc.) of the vessel, it will 
be necessary to put a splice in it, as a knot would refuse to 
render (pass) through the swallow (opening) in the block. 
There are three kinds of splices in general use — namely, the 
long, the short, and the eye-splice. When joining running 
rigging a long splice is always employed, as it does not in- 
crease the diameter of the rope, and when neatly made cannot 
easily be detected. The short splice is very bulging, but it 
can be made quickly and is employed in all cases where the 
rope does not pass through blocks. The eye-splice is used 
I for making a permanent loop in the end of a rope, such, for 
instance, as is seen in the hawsers by which steamboats are 
temporarily made fast to a dock, the loop or eye being 
thrown over the spile on the pier. Let us first consider the 
making of the latter splice. 

Splices 

The Eye-splice (Fig. i). — Open the end of the rope and 
lay the strands i, 2, 3 upon the standing part as shown in 

204 



MARLIN-SPIKE SEAMANSHIP 





FIG. I. THE EYE-SPLICE 







B 



FIG. 2, THE SHORT SPLICE 






FIG. 3. THE LONG SPLICE 

A in Fig. 1 ; now push strand 4 through the rope as shown 
in B ; next thrust strand 5 over the part through which the 
former was passed, and last push the strand 6 through on 
the opposite side. Repeat this once, then cut off the remain- 
ing ends, and the splice will appear as in C. 
The Short Splice (Fig. 2). — Hold the rope B (Fig. 2 A) 

205 



BOATING BOOK FOR B6¥§ 

in the left hand ; pass the strand 4 over 1 , and having thrust 
it through under 3, pull it taut; take strand 5 and pass it 
over 2 and under 1 ; pass strand 6 over the first strand next 
to it and under the second. Shift the rope around and treat 
the other side in the same way, and the result will be as 
shown in Fig. 2 B. This single tucking of the ends is not 
sufficient for strength, so repeat the operation once, then cut 
off the ends of the strands. 

The Long Splice (Fig. 3). — Unlay (untwist) the two ends 
to be joined some two or three feet, and place the ends togeth- 
er in the same manner as explained for the short splice. Now 
take the strand 1 and unlay it as far back as A, and in the 
groove left in the rope wind the strand 2 ; unlay the strand 3 
and in its place lay-up (wind) the strand 4. At this stage 
the rope will represent the appearance of Fig. 3 B. The 
middle strands, 5 and 6, will now be knotted with a simple 
overhand knot Fig. 3 C, care being observed that the knot 
is formed to follow the lay (form) of the rope. Next divide 
these two strands equally as shown in Fig. 3 D, and tuck 
them into the rope on the same principle as explained for 
the short and eye splice. The remaining strands will be 
treated in the same manner, after which stretch the rope 
well and cut off the ends. 

Knots 

Reef Knot (Fig. 4). — This commonly used knot is also 
known as a flat knot and square knot, and is one of the 
most valuable of the many employed. As its name implies, 
it is used to tie the reef points of a sail, the stops (short 

206 



MARLIN-SPIKE SEAMANSHIP 

lengths of rope) used to secure the jib to the bowsprit when 
the sail is lowered, etc. Should a person find it necessary 
in order to affect an escape from a burning building to fashion 
a line by tearing sheets into lengths and tying them together, 
this knot should be. employed, for it will not slip and the 
bulge where the strips are tied will afford good hold for the 
hands. In order to make the knot, simply tie an overhand 
knot, then pass the ends so that they shall take the same lay 
(form) as the crossed parts beneath. Should the ends be 
passed (crossed) wrong, an Old Granny knot (Fig. 5) will be 
the result, and this knot will capsize (pull out of shape) and 
slip as soon as a strain is put upon it. 

Bowline Knot (Fig. 6). — Take the end (1) of the rope 
in the right hand and the standing part (2) in the left hand; 
lay the end over the standing part and turn the left wrist so 
that the standing part forms a loop (4) enclosing the end ; 
now lead the end back of the standing part and above the 
loop and bring the end down through the loop again as 
shown. A bowline of this kind, sometimes called a single 
bowline, is employed in a variety of ways. Seamen sit in 
the bight (3) of this shape to be hoisted aloft under certain 
circumstances, and two towing hawsers are often made fast 
to each other by two bowlines, the bight of one being passed 
through the bight of the other. 

Bowline on a Bight (Fig. 7). — Double the rope, and take 
the double end (1) in the right hand, the standing part (2) of 
the rope in left hand; lay the end over the standing part, 
and by turning the left wrist form a loop (3), having the end 
inside; now pull up enough of the end (1) to dip under the 
bight (4) , bringing the end towards the right and dipping it 

207 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

under the bight, then passing it up to the left over the loop 
and hauling taut. This knot is employed in the same way 
as explained for the single bowline, and it may also be stated 
that it affords much amusement as a puzzle, for if the stand- 
ing part (2) is held and the knot presented to be untied, only 
those familiar with the way in which it is made will be apt 
to discover the secret of dipping the end (1) back and un- 
doing the knot by handling it in a reverse manner to that 
described for its manufacture. 

Running Bowline (Fig. 8). — The only difference between 
this knot and the one described under the head of " Bow- 
line" is that the end (1) of the rope is taken around the 
standing part (2), and then a single bowline (3) is tied on 
its own part. As will be understood by reference to the 
diagram, this forms a slipknot or lasso, and in fact it is 
employed for the same purposes as the latter. When a 
shark is hooked by sailors the great fish is hauled up until 
his head is out of water, then a running bowline is made 
around the hook-line and allowed to fall down over the fins, 
when it is hauled taut and the strain taken off the hook and 
line, so that the danger of the fish escaping may be greatly 
lessened, for the line is apt to break from the thrashing of 
the creature or the hook pull out. 

Wall Knot (Fig. 9). — Unlay the end of the rope and 
whip (tie) it where shown, and form a bight of strand 1, and 
hold it down at the side represented by 2 ; pass the end of 
3 around 1 , and the end of 4 around 3 and through the bight 
of 1, then the knot will appear as shown in Fig. 10; now 
haul the parts taut and the knot will be formed. 

Crowned Wall Knot (Fig. n). — Over the top of the 

208 



Fig. 4 






Fig- 5 






Fig. 7 



Fig. 8 



Fig. ii 





Fig. io 



Fig. 12 




Fig. 13 



Fig. 14 





Fig. 15 Fig. 16 




Fig, 18 



Fig. 17 



Fig. 19 





Fig. 20 Fjg m 2I Fig 22 




Fig. 23 Fig. 24 



KNOTS 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS_ 

knot lay the strand i, then lay strand 2 over 1, and strand 
3 over 2, and pass it through the bight of 1 ; now haul taut 
the parts and the knot will take the shape shown in Fig. 12. 

Double Wall and Double Crown Knot (Fig. 13). — 
This is made by allowing the strands to follow their respect- 
ive parts round, first walling, then crowning, as shown in 
the diagram. This formation is also used as a Stopper Knot 
and a Man Rope Knot, although a proper Stopper Knot is 
shown in Fig. 14. It is a very beautiful knot when nicely 
made, and as a fancy knot is common on yachts and naval 
vessels. 

Matthew Walker Knot (Fig 15). — As its name implies, 
this knot is named after the man who invented it. It is 
exceedingly simple and easy to make, and is in common use 
on board of all vessels. Unlay the strands for a short dis- 
tance, and pass the end 1 around the rope and through its 
own bight ; next the strand 2 underneath and through the 
bight of 1 , also its own bight ; last the strand 3 underneath 
and through the bights of 1 and 2. When hauled taut the 
knot will appear as in Fig. 16. 

Diamond Knot (Fig. 17). — Unlay the strands as for a 
Matthew Walker Knot, and form three bights and then 
take strand 1 over 2 and through the bight of 3 ; take strand 
2 over 3 and through the bight of 1 ; take strand 3 over 1 and 
through the bight of 2, then haul the parts taut, and lay up 
(arrange) the strands of the rope again, and the knot will 
then appear as in Fig. 18. What is known as a Double 
Diamond Knot (Fig. 19) may be made by leading the 
strands through two single bights, having the ends come 
out at the top of the knot, then leading the last strand 

210 



MARLlN-SPIKE SEAMANSHIP 

through two double bights; last lay the strands up as pre- 
viously explained, and the knot will show as in Fig. 19. 

Turk's Head Knot (Fig. 20). — This is purely an orna- 
mental knot, and is used to beautify yoke lines for a row- 
ing boat, man ropes, ridge ropes, gangway ropes, etc. The 
material used in the construction of this knot is regulated 
according to the character of the article to be decorated, 
ranging from twine to signal halyard stuff (line) . To make 
this knot, form a clove hitch, ancl bring the bight of 1 
(Fig. 21) under the bight of 2, then take the end up through 
it, make another cross with the bights, and take the end 
down. Fig. 22 represents a Turk's Head of two lays, but 
it may have any number of lays, it being necessary only to 
follow the lead around according to the formation desired. 

Rope Yarn Knot (Fig. 23). — It is to be explained that 
a rope yarn is simply one of the several parts which make a 
strand of rope. When a strand is untwisted, its parts be- 
come rope yarns. These yarns are used for a number of pur- 
poses, such as for rough seizings, etc. When a considerable 
length of rope yarn is required, it is necessary to knot it 
smoothly, and this is effected in the following manner : Split 
in halves the two ends of the rope yarns, and crotch and tie 
the two opposite ends, then jam the tie and cut off the re- 
maining ends. 

Lark's Head Knot (Fig. 24). — This knot is used on the 
same principle as explained for the Slippery Hitch ; when it 
is desired to undo it quickly, simply pull out the wooden 
toggle 1. The making of the knot will be fully understood 
by consulting the diagram. 

Ropes are temporarily fastened to one another, or to a 

211 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

spar, hook, ring-bolt, etc., by bends and by hitches. These 
are all more or less simple, and a little practice and patience 
is all that is necessary for the young reader to become expert 
in their manufacture. Let us first consider the bends in 
general use. 

Bends 

Common Bend (Fig. 25). — This is also known as a single 
bend, and is used for making one rope fast to another in a 
hurry. Make a bight with one rope, and hold it in the left 
hand; pass the end of the other rope 1 through the bight 
2, then back round the two parts 3, over the rope 4, under 
the rope 5, and over the short end of the loop. If the 
end 1 is taken around once more and through the bight 
again, as shown in Fig. 26, the bend will stand a greater 
strain and be less liable to jam. The bend shown in Fig. 26 
is known as a double bend. 

Carrick Bend (Fig. 27). — This, like the common bend, 
is used for bending hawsers together, but is a trifle more 
difficult to make. Make a bight with the end of one rope; 
pass the end of the other rope through the bight and over 
the standing part of the first rope where marked 1, then 
under the end 2, and again through the bight and over the 
standing part 3 . 

Fisherman's Bend (Fig. 28). — First pass the rope twice 
round the spar or ring, which act is understood by sailors 
as " taking two round turns," next take a half hitch round 
the standing part, then thrust the end under the two turns, 
and last half hitch the end round the standing part A. 
When hauled taut the. bend will appear as shown in Fig. 29. 

212 



MARLIN-SPIKE SEAMANSHIP 



Sheet Bend (Fig. 30). — Pass the end 1 through the eye; 
take two turns round, observing in each case that the end 
passes under the standing part 2. The greater the strain, 




Fig. 25 




Fig. 26 



Fig. 28 



Fig. 29 



Fig. 27 







- — Fig. 32 

^FigT^ Fi Z- 3I Fig. 33 

the more the standing part binds the two turns, and insures 
them from slipping. 

Hitches 

Two Half Hitches (Fig. 31). — This is an exceedingly 
simple way of fastening a rope, and it has the double ad- 
vantage of being proof against jamming. Take a turn 
around the object to which it is desired to fasten ; bring the 
end 1 on top of the standing part 2, then pass it under and 
bring it up through the bight ; repeat this process, haul taut, 

213 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

and the result will show as in Fig. 32. In case the hitch is 
to be subjected to a great strain, lash the end of the rope to 
the standing part where marked 3 in Fig. 32. 

Clove Hitch (Fig. 33). — This is another very useful 
hitch, but is only employed when the strain upon it is 
temporary. It is in general use for bending a heaving-line 
(small rope) to a hawser so that a coil of the former may be 
thrown from a vessel to the dock and, after it is caught, the 
hawser pulled ashore. 

Slippery Hitch (Fig. 34). — This hitch is simply a turn 
around a spar or other object or through an eye, the end 
carried across the standing part, and a loop put through the 
bight, the end 1 being allowed to hang out. When it is 
desired to separate the hitch, pull out the loop by hauling 
on the end 1 . 

Blackwall Hitch (Fig. 35). — This is used in hoisting. 
Simply take a turn around the back of the hook, crossing 
the parts of the rope in front as shown. When a strain is 
put on the standing part of the rope, the underneath part 
is jammed and slipping prevented. 

Timber Hitch (Fig. 36). — A hitch employed in towing 
spars and logs, as it will not slip. Pass the end 1 of the rope 
around the spar and lead it up and around the standing part 
2, then pass two or three turns with the end around its own 
part as shown in the illustration. 

Rolling Hitch (Fig. 37). — A very good method of clap- 
ping (fastening) a tail-block. Take a hitch with the tail 1 ; 
take another hitch over the first; pass the end under the 
standing part 2, and twist the remainder of the tail round 
the rope, following the lay. A tail-block, being portable, is 

214 



MARLIN-SPIKE SEAMANSHIP 

convenient to make fast anywhere about decks or the rig- 
ging, and a rope being rove through this block, a purchase, 
called a "whip," is created. 

Magnus Hitch (Fig. 38). — Some people confuse this 
hitch with the rolling hitch just described, but a comparison 
of the two will explain the difference between them. With 
the end of the rope 1 pass two turns over the spar; carry 
the end in front of the standing part 2 ; pass it again under 




the spar and bring it up through the bight. The value of 
this hitch is its insurance against slipping in the direction 
represented by the arrow. 

Catspaw Hitch (Fig. 39). — Like the Blackwall Hitch, 
this one is used for making a rope fast to a hook for hoist- 

21S 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

ing purposes. Seize the bight of the rope in your two 
hands, and by turning the wrists form the two loops, then 
hang these loops on the hook as in Fig. 40. 

Sheepshank Hitch (Fig. 41). — A quick way of shortening 
a rope without cutting it is to convert a portion of it into 
a shape known as a sheepshank. Gather up the spare rope 
and lay it in parallel lines as shown. These parallel lines 
may be represented by any number, according to the quan- 
tity of spare rope and the length of the sheepshank. In the 
accompanying diagrams we show the smallest sheepshank 
that can be made, consisting of three parallel lines. After 
forming the rope as shown in Fig. 41, take a half hitch with 
the standing part 1 round the bight 4, and repeat this at the 
other extremity with the standing part 2 and the bight 3. 
The result will be as shown in Fig. 42. If it is desired to 
make this hitch doubly secure, put a seizing (fastening) 7 
on the loops 5 and standing parts 6 (Fig. 43). 

Marling Hitch (Fig. 44). — Employed to make a running 
binding which can be put on and removed quickly. 



Part V 
MOTOR-BOATS AND MOTOR-BOATING 

15 



Chapter XVIII 

SIMPLE TYPES OF BOATS FOR MOTORS 

BOATS are attractive enough in themselves to interest 
any boy, but when they are equipped with a motor the 
interest multiplies many times. This gives a boat the 
power of propelling itself, and that is what boys of to-day 
want. Many of them have fathers who own automobiles, 
and a boy soon learns how a motor runs and what makes 
it run by watching the older people start their motors and 
occawsionally take them apart. There are a great many 
boys of to-day who can run gasolene-motors quite as well 
as some older people, but there are also many boys who 
have not had the opportunity to run or to experiment with 
a motor. 

Since a boy must have the boat before the motor, let us 
consider boats first and see what kind of a boat is best 
suited to the conditions. Afterward we will consider the 
motor for it. Let us first get somewhat acquainted with 
the different kinds of boats. All dogs are in general spoken 
of as dogs, but there are many different breeds of dogs — 
St. Bernards and fox-terriers and greyhounds. Any boy 
can tell one from the other. Boats are just the same, and 
we will classify a few for those boys whose experience has 

219 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

not brought them into contact with boats enough to tell one 
from the other. 

Punt 

The simplest and most easily built of all is the square- 
ended punt or scow (Fig. i) which in shape is nothing but a 
long, narrow, shallow box, square at both ends, with the side 
planks deeper in the middle and narrower at the ends, to 



Fig. J 

make it easier for the water to crowd down under the boat 
and rise up again at the stern as the boat passes over it. 

There are hundreds of just such boats used on the Missis- 
sippi River and its tributaries by men who fish for the pearl 
oysters. Some of them are quite fast. Almost any boy 
can build such a boat * about sixteen feet long, which, with 
a one or two horse-power motor, will make about six miles an 
hour. Such boats are very safe, being " stiff," as sailors say, 
and not apt to tip and spill one over the side into the water. 

Most of the boats are built so that one wide board forms 
each side, and the bottom is put on crosswise, just as if one 
were making a box. You will be surprised at the amount of 
fun to be had with such a boat on smooth rivers and 
lakes. 

* For instructions in building punts and other boats see Chapter vii. 

220 



SIMPLE TYPES OP BOATS 



Skiff 

For more exposed bays and rivers where waves are apt 
to be encountered the skiff model is better. This boat is 
a little more difficult to build, but any bright boy can 
make one. The only difference is that the front end, or bow, 
is drawn in to a point like a wedge (Fig. 2). The bottom is 
put on like the bottom of the punt, or it can be put on in 
boards running lengthwise from bow to "after end," or 
stern — "fore and aft," as sailors say — by fitting in oak 




Fig. 2 

cross-pieces to nail the boards to. A skiff looks much more 
like a real boat than a punt does. Among yachtsmen this 
handy and serviceable skiff used to be looked down upon as 
1 ' cheap, ' ' but that is all the more of a recommendation. It is 
a boat any boy can save up money enough to build. The ma- 
terials will cost about a dollar a foot. To have one built gener- 
ally costs about three dollars a foot ; the man's wages making 
up the difference. 

Skipjack 

The only objection to these two flat-bottomed types is 
the fact that they slap or pound the water when there are 
any waves, but this can be overcome in two ways without 
abandoning flat planks, and without going into the difficult 

221 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

round-bottomed boat construction, which is too intricate 
for most boys, and for most men, too, for that matter. 

One of these ways is to build what is called a "skipjack" 
(Fig. 3), sometimes known as the "diamond-bottomed boat," 



Fig. 3 

and also as a "deadrise boat," and the other way is to build 
a dory. The "skipjack," as we shall call this first type, 
has a flat bottom like a skiff, only while, each side is flat 
in itself, they come together in a wide open V-shape so that 
the wedge-shaped bow does not pound the water, but cuts 
it apart. This kind of a boat is good for all speeds. The 
fastest boats of the day are constructed on this model, as 
at the extreme speeds up to which motor-boats are driven the 
water becomes almost a solid substance causing the boats to 
crowd up and slide over the top of it, and the sliding neces- 
sitates a form of bottom so flat that the boat will not roll 
over, but will slide and stay right side up. This is the way 
all hydroplanes run. Hydro, meaning water, tells us what 
they are — water -planes or flat planes sliding over the 
water's surface. The modern high-speed gasolene-engine 
is so light for the power it develops that it is now possible 
to get two hundred horse-power into a twenty-foot boat, 
whereas formerly only eight or ten horse-power was possible. 
The impetus which this enormous amount of power gives a 

222 



SIMPLE TYPES OF BOATS 



boat through the medium of its propeller is sufficient to lift 
the bow up out of the water, and the boat skitters over the 
surface like a flat stone skimmed by a boy over the surface 
of a pond. The fastest boat of 191 1, the Sand Burr II, 
owned at Atlantic City, is twenty feet long, with a one hun- 
dred horse-power motor, and at full speed it is lifted out 
of the water until only about seven or eight feet of the after 
end touches the water. In this position she rushes hither 
and thither with her high-speed motor humming like a 
bumble-bee. No round-bottomed boat could stand right 
side up if she were driven at such a speed, and boats flat, 
or nearly flat-bottomed in their after part, have to be used. 

Dory 

The other way in which the flat-planked construction 
can be used to produce a good, seaworthy boat is in building 
what is called a dory (Fig. 4) . For slow speeds and for use in 




Fig. 4 



rough water the dory, long used by the hardy fishermen in 
the Newfoundland bank fisheries, has proved itself to be 
the safest kind of small boat. 

Here the bottom is flat, but much smaller, and made 
pointed at each end. Both the ends and the sides flare out 

223 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

considerably — the sides are built up much higher than a 
skiff, and the ends are considerably higher than the middle 
of the boat, so that they ride dry and safely over big 
waves. 

The original dories built to row were narrow and had 
almost flat sides, but as these are rather cramped when a 
motor is installed the sides are now rounded out more, 
which greatly increases the buoyancy and makes a more 
comfortable boat to move about in. 

Round-bottomed Boats 

The average boy will hardly be likely to try to build for 
himself anything more difficult than the dory. That is 
the connecting link, as it were, between the simple con- 
struction and the more complex round-bottomed boats. 
To build a regular round-bottomed launch calls for a lot 
of patience and no small amount of knowledge and skill. 
It is an art in itself. 

Round-bottomed boats are more comfortable to ride in, 
as there is less flat surface and no hard corners for a wave 
to hit. The round-sided boat takes the shock more grad- 
ually and naturally. It is the ambition of every boy to 
own a real round-bottomed boat. 

One would suppose after all the years that boats have 
been built some standard would have been reached as to 
the best size and shape, but such is not the case. Every 
little while some one evolves what to him is a new idea in 
a boat's shape, though as a fact it may have been tried out 
a hundred years before. 

224 



SIMPLE TYPES OF BOATS 



New inventions in the propelling power are largely re- 
sponsible for the ever-changing type of motor-boats. When 
steam was the only motive power the weights to be carried 
in engine, boiler, water, and fuel made it impossible to 
build a small fast boat equipped with the outfits then on 
the market, and there were not enough people willing to 
pay the necessary price for a specially designed light outfit. 

Conditions were greatly improved only a few years ago 
when the naphtha-motor was invented with its small, com- 
pact power-plant. To-day, by the use of the more power- 
ful and compact gasolene-motor, many times the power can 
be gotten into the same space, and naturally all this changed 
the shapes and proportions of the boats. 




A RAISED-DECK CRUISER 
225 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

The principles that underlie the actions and movements 
of all boats in the water have always remained the same 
just as the rules of addition and subtraction have remained 
the same. The same laws of gravitation that have ruled 
the world heretofore are still at work on boats. The rounder 
a boat's shape is, the more apt she is to roll; the flatter it 
is, the less apt to roll. The narrower it is, the easier it will 
upset ; and the wider it is, the more stable it becomes. As 
boats are made smaller they need more stability, since the 
weight of a man does not decrease, but stays the same. 

Don't expect a boat built like a plank on edge to float 
upright in the water. It will try to turn over on its side. 
On the other hand, don't make a boat so wide and flat that 
it cannot be dragged over the water easily. 

Resistance of the Water 

The resistance boats have to overcome in going through 
the water are the friction of the water along their sides and 
the cleaving and pushing aside of the water met by the 
bow. Hydroplanes are so built that they crowd up on the 
surface of the water and skitter along at a high rate of 
speed, reducing the friction of the water by crowding a film 
of air under the boat between it and the water. Ordinary 
round-bottomed launches do not do this. They have to 
wedge the water apart and let it close up behind them, and 
when they go so fast that the water begins to drag after 
them trying to fill up the hole they leave behind, they are 
going as fast as they are supposed to be able to go. Some- 
times this drag is due to a poorly shaped boat, one where 

226 



SIMPLE TYPES OF BOATS 




A FAMILY CRUISER 

the stern end is rounded in so abruptly that the water does 
not have an easy curve to flow into at the stern. Boats 
which are crowded in this manner raise the bows up and 
drag their sterns down low. The force that makes the 
boat go is the push of the propeller against the water. The 
propeller-blades are set at an angle just like the thread on a 
screw, but whereas the latter will advance one thread ahead 
into wood for every complete turn, the propeller, turning 
in water instead of wood, does not go ahead the full pitch 
of the propeller - blades, because the water gives way to 
a certain extent. It "slips," so to speak, and this loss is 
called the "slip" of the propeller. Suppose, for example, 
the angle of a certain boat's propeller is such that if it 

227 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

followed that angle of advance for one complete revolution 
the propeller would go ahead two feet. It would have a 
pitch of two feet. But if the boat advances eighteen inches, 
then there is six inches lost in slip, or, as it would be termed, 
a 25% slip, six being 25% of twenty-four. 




Chapter XIX 

THE GASOLENE-ENGINE 

General Description 

A GASOLENE-ENGINE is in itself as simple as en- 
gines can be made. On the outside you see the iron 
casting like a big piece of round pipe standing up on end as 
shown by letter A in the illustration of a make-and-break 
motor (Fig. i).* That is the cylinder, and the bottom of 
it, B, is called the "base," the top of it, A, the "head." 

Through this casting near the base goes the shaft (F), 
with a big, heavy fly-wheel (E) on one end and a place 
to add on more shafting at the other (F). All the rest of 
the wheels and oil-cans and faucets you see are the fittings. 
C is the by-pass where the gasolene vapor ascends from the 
base up past the piston. 

Some engines have the heads and sides of the cylinders 
all cast in one piece, as shown in the accompanying illustra- 
tion; but others have the heads bolted on separately. If 
you were to take off this head and look inside you would 
only see a polished, smooth surface like the inside of a gun- 
barrel. If you turn the fly-wheel over you will see the top 

* If any of these terms are not clear, consult the Dictionary of Technical 
Terms in the Appendix. 

229 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 




Fig.t 



of the piston slide up and down like the plunger of a pump. 
This piston takes the pressure as the gases expand upon 
being ignited. It is shaped like a tin-can upside down, and 
looking in from the top you see the bottom of the can-shaped 
piston. Across the inside of this piston there is a steel pin 
on which is hinged the steel arm which reaches down and 
grasps the shaft just where it is bent in a U, thus forming 
a crank by which the shaft and the fly-wheel are turned. 

230 



THE GASOLENE-ENGINE 



This steel arm is called the connecting-rod. The piston, 
connecting rod, shaft, and fly-wheel are the principal mov- 
ing parts of an engine, and all, except the fly-wheel, are 
out of sight inside the engine. 

Another moving part is a small steel shaft that is worked 
up and down by an eccentric on the shaft just behind 
the fly-wheel. This works not only the sparker (M), but 
also another rod (Q), which acts as a pump-plunger to 
pump the circulating water that keeps the head of the en- 
gine cool. 

The Make-and-break System 

The make-and-break system of ignition is shown on this 
engine. As the rod is pushed up the trigger (P) hits against 
the time-adjusting screw (N) and is pulled away from the 
rod so that the spring (O) snaps the ignition points apart 
inside the cylinder and makes an electrical spark. By 
turning the handle of the screw (N) the trigger (P) can be 
released at different times so as to make the spark earlier 
or later during the stroke of the piston. 

D shows the after bearing. There is another one be- 
tween the fly-wheel and the engine where the shaft turns, 
and this is kept lubricated by the grease-cups (H H). The 
forward one is generally screwed to the end of a piece of 
pipe, to make it easier to get at, since the revolving fly- 
wheel is rather close to it. 

J is an oil-cup, I the little glass window, or sight -feed, as 
it is called, through which one can see if oil is being fed or 
not. K is the refilling hole, and L, the handle, which, when 

231 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

raised perpendicularly, opens the valve to let oil pass. 
When laid down horizontally, L shuts off the oil supply. 

S is a relief -cock. By opening it some of the compression 
is relieved, making it easier to turn over the engine. T acts 
in the same way and also serves as a cup to prime the motor 
in starting. 

G is the handle for turning the fly-wheel. It has a spring 
which pulls it back into the rim of the fly-wheel when it is 
released. Be careful to see that it does go back. Some- 
times it sticks, and this handle may catch your clothes. 



The Jump-spark System 

The difference between the make-and-break engine and 
the jump-spark engine is shown in the accompanying second 
illustration (Fig. 2). Here there is no small shaft jumping 
up and down on the front of the engine. Instead there is a 
bevel gear (b) which, in well-made engines, is encased in 
metal covers so that nothing can fall in between the teeth 
of the gears and break them. This bevel gear rotates a 
little rod on the top of which is the timer. This is a wheel 
or finger revolving in the rubber cup-like box (W). At 
the proper time, in relation to the stroke of the piston, this 
timer comes in contact with a metal point that sticks 
through this rubber box. To this point on the outside the 
electric wire is made fast so that the electricity, at the 
second of contact, has a complete circuit to flow around. 
The action is like turning on a faucet in a house which starts 
the water flowing in the pipes. 

232 



THE GASOLENE-ENGINE 



C-* 




Fig. 2 



The Coil 



X is the coil which magnifies the power of the electricity 
from a low pressure to a high pressure or high tension, as it is 
technically called. To hold and carry this high tension 
current of electricity from the coil to the spark-plug (Z), a 
larger wire is used (d), with more insulation around it. It 
is more strongly made, just as a fire hose is much stronger 
than a garden hose. 

16 233 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Carbureter and Other Parts 

Both make-and-break and jump-spark motors use a 
carbureter (U). The pipe which carries the gases into the 
engine is called the intake port (V). 

To enable the person running the engine easily to reach 
and adjust the time of the spark and thus either advance 
or retard it, a handle (e) is fitted to a ratchet (f), which is 
bolted onto the top of the cylinder-head, and the timer 
connected to this by means of rods. 

Where a chain or a gear-driven pump is used instead of 
a plunger-pump, the chain or gears are sometimes encased 
as shown at a. A flange coupling is shown at c. The plug 
for draining oil out of the base of the engine at g. Water- 
jacketed exhausts are becoming very popular, since they 
do away with a red-hot exhaust -pipe, on which one is apt 
to burn his hands. Y shows such a water- jacketed exhaust. 



Chapter XX 

HOW THE ENGINE WORKS 

AS regards the transmission of power to the shafts the 
L gasolene-engine is very similar to the sewing-machine or 
grindstone. The axle of the wheel has metal bearings or 
supports, like those of a grindstone, and there is a bent 
kink in the shaft by which it is turned. When once started 
the heavy grindstone acts like the engine's fly-wheel. With 
the muscles of your arm you push the crank that turns the 
grindstone, but in a motor this push is much quicker and 
stronger. The engine is built of cast iron, heavy enough so 
that a gas, when ignited, can suddenly expand and push 
the piston down. The piston is shaped like a can upside 
down, with an arm that extends down to the crank. This 
piston fits snugly up into the engine itself. As the fly- 
wheel turns around, the crank, or kink in the shaft, causes 
this piston, or can-shaped affair, to go up and down in the 
engine cylinder, and every time it comes up near the top 
it is kicked back again by the explosion of the gas. 

Three Vital Points 

Three things are of vital importance in a gasolene-engine. 
First, there must be sufficient air mixed with the gas vapor 

235 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

to make a high explosive. Secondly, there must be a hot 
electric spark to ignite this mixture ; and thirdly, there must 
be proper lubrication to prevent the metal wearing on 
metal from getting hot and expanding so as to bind. Don't 
expect an engine to run without any of these three things 
— they will not do it. While this is the A B C of gas- 
engines it stands to reason that with an outfit of this kind one 
must use brains. Even a door-knob is apt to come loose, 
and that has only one screw, so why shouldn't things hap- 
pen on a motor-boat, where the engine, by the time it is 
ready to run, contains a line of shafting to be turned, three 
lines of pipings, gasolene, water, and exhaust to be kept 
tight, and all the delicate wiring of the electrical outfit to 




A DOUBLE-ENDED MODEL 



236 



HOW THE ENGINE WORKS 

be kept in order? Even a door-bell will not ring if one of 
the wires comes loose from the dry batteries. No one of 
these in itself is particularly intricate, but all of them help 
to swell the sum total of parts to be kept in mind. The 
exhaust-pipe, for instance, if well set up in the beginning, 
may never have to be touched again. The gasolene-pipe 
likewise, if care is exercised in straining the gasolene when 
it is put in, may never give trouble; but, unfortunately, 
care is the one ingredient often left out, and then we have 
trouble. Just as some lead-pencils are better than others, 
so some gasolene-engines are made of better proportions, 
or of a better grade of metal, or have better workmanship 
than others. You can't expect to get a hundred-dollar arti- 
cle for twenty-five dollars. But you do get a fair engine 
very cheaply to-day compared to the cost a few years ago. 

Accessories 

What is of more importance, the engines of to-day are 
generally fitted with everything in the way of accessories 
best suited to that motor. Engine manufacturers have 
found it pays them to sell a more complete plant than for- 
merly. When gasolene-engines were first put on the market 
it was like buying a pair of trousers at one store, a waist- 
coat at another, and a coat at another. That is to say, you 
might be able to match the goods, and you might not. But 
now you buy the whole outfit at one place, and the results 
to both engine manufacturer and buyer are more satis- 
factory. There is one prominent company which built up 
a reputation for its engines just because they insisted on 

237 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 




A POWER-DORY IN THE HUDSON RIVER OFF THE COLUMBIA YACHT CLUB 

supplying the carbureter to mix the gas and an ignition 
outfit to discharge it which they knew to be best suited to 
their motor. They made a reputation for themselves, while 
other engines, perhaps just as good, were being sold with- 
out these important parts, and, as few owners were able to 
get the right accessories, the reputation of those engines 
suffered. It is the outfit as a whole that counts. 



Two-cycle and Four-cycle Engines 

Gasolene-engines are divided into two kinds: two-cycle 
and four-cycle. The two-cycle are generally in the smaller- 
sized engines, and the four-cycle are more common in en- 

238 



HOW THE ENGINE WORKS 

gines of greater horse-power. The term cycle is somewhat 
confusing, since most people think of it as a circle and 
imagine that the fly-wheel makes two or four circles. This 
is not the case. If we used the terms two-stroke and four- 
stroke engines, as they do in England, this popular error 
would not have existed. 

The two-cycle engine sucks in a charge of gas through 
holes called "ports" in the sides of the cylinder when the 
piston is at or near the bottom of its stroke, and compresses 
the gas against the top of the cylinder as the piston comes 
up. Then the spark-plug explodes it when the piston is 
away up and the burnt gases, as it goes down again, escape 
through a hole low down in the side of the cylinder, and a new 
charge comes in. All this happens while the fly-wheel is 
making one revolution. 

The four-cycle engine sucks in a charge of gas when the 
piston goes down, compresses or squeezes it together on 
the up-stroke, explodes it when the piston is away up, and 
allows it to expand and keep pushing the piston during its 
whole down-stroke. Then an exhaust-port opens and all 
the burnt gases are blown out as the piston rises again. 
This requires two revolutions of the fly-wheel — two down 
and two up motions of the piston. The disadvantages of 
the four-cycle engine in very small sizes are apparent, since 
a heavy fly-wheel is needed to keep the engine working 
during the revolution when there is no push. 

The two-cycle engine uncovers its ports as the piston 
slides up and down, but the four-cycle has a separate shaft, 
called a cam-shaft, turned by gear-wheels from the main 
shaft, which by means of cams and push-rods automatically 

239 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

opens and closes the inlet and outlet valves as required. 
The two-cycle motor has its base all enclosed, since there 
is pressure maintained in the base. The gases are squeezed 
from the base as the piston descends. They are forced up 
around the piston through a small passageway leading from 
the base up into the cylinder above the piston to the top 
of the cylinder, and they are ready to be ignited after being 
again squeezed on the up-stroke. 

This compression and explosion of the gases generates so 
much heat that the cylinder-heads of marine gas-engines 
are cast double, with a space between the two thicknesses 
of metal where water can circulate and cool them off. (See 
A in Fig. i). This is easy because there is always plenty 
of water available, around a boat. On land it is customary 
to use air-cooled motors, in which the head of the cylinder 
is cast with many thin ribs to increase the cooling surface 
and permit as much radiation of this heat as is possible. 
(Fig. 3). The appearance of a marine engine is shown in 
Fig. 2 . A two-cycle engine explodes its charge much of tener 
than a four-cycle one, and the concussion is not so heavy. 
Hence, for small boats the two-cycle is generally preferred. 

Ignition 

The ignition, or means of exploding the gas, also is pro- 
vided for in two ways: one is called the ' ' make-and-break " 
(Fig. 4); the other the "jump-spark" ignition (Fig. 5). In 
both cases the electricity is led in through the head of the 
cylinder by insulated plugs. In the make-and-break sys- 
tem a low power of electricity is used and a movable arm 

240 





Fig. I 



Fig. 2 



Fig. 3 





Fig. 5 



Fig. 6 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

geared to a shaft on the outside of the cylinder. When the 
piston is up, ready to be pushed down, this arm snaps away 
from the plug which has the electricity, and as it breaks 
the electric current it produces a spark that ignites the 
gasolene vapor inside the cylinder. 

In the jump-spark system there are two small wires whose 
points almost touch each other in the end of the spark-plug 
(Fig. 6) inside the cylinder. The current of electricity is in- 
tensified by means of a spark-coil (Fig. 3. See page 266), 
and when, at the proper second, a contact is made in the cir- 
cuit outside the motor by the commutator, the electricity is 
turned on, and as it rushes along the wires and comes to this 
break in the plug — the "spark-gap," as it is called — it 
jumps from point to point and makes a hot spark which 
ignites the gasolene vapor. 

Without going into all the little details of construction 
of each engine these are the principal features of the gaso- 
lene-engine. 

To get a clear idea of all the various parts that one must 
know in order to understand how motors are installed, or 
put into a boat, let us see how we would put a two or three 
horse-power, single-cylinder, two-stroke engine into a skiff. 



Chapter XXI 

INSTALLING THE ENGINE 
Engine-Bed 

THE first step in installing the motor is to build a bed 
or foundation to which the motor may be bolted. 
This must hold it up clear of the bottom boards so that the 
fly-wheel will be free to revolve. 

As this varies with different makes of motors, some 
being wider than others, some having larger fly-wheels, 
etc., we must obtain the exact dimensions of the motor we 
are to fit into our skiff, and besides this we must have the 
diameter of the propeller- wheel that is to be used, in order 
to know how the shaft line will run. Many engine makers 
sell the whole outfit complete — shaft, propeller, batteries, 
etc. 

Knowing the diameter of the fly-wheel and the propeller- 
wheel, we must determine the proper place for the shaft - 
hole in the bottom of the boat. Stretch a piece of fish-cord 
to represent the center line of the shaft (Fig. i), and bore 
a small augur-hole where it goes through the bottom. Some 
motors have the base or bottom of the engine foundation right 
at the level of the shaft-line, others an inch or so below it. 
Suppose the base is one-half inch below. The first thing 

243 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

to do is to make a stout floor or brace of about one-and-a- 
half -inch oak to go across the boat from side to side, high 
enough to hold the fly-wheel off the floor. When this is 
fitted to the floor, cut two pieces to run fore and aft, 
or lengthwise, of the boat just far enough apart to receive 
the bolts in the bed or base of the motor. These should be 
notched about two inches into the cross-floor to steady the 
ends. They should be cut with a slant like that of the fish- 
line which represents the angle of the shaft-line (Fig. 2 and 
Fig. 3). Let these pieces run as far aft as they will, to dis- 
tribute the strain and weight of the motor over as large an 
area as possible. Between these two, to brace them apart, 
aft of the engine fit another cross-piece. Fasten all these 
pieces to the bottom boards of the skiff with large gal- 
vanized-iron wire nails, or bolts driven up through the bot- 
tom planking of the skiff. To this bed the engine is bolted 
with lag-screws. 

Stuffing-box and Shaft-Log 

There must be some sort of a water-tight arrangement 
where the propeller-shaft goes out through the boat's bot- 
tom. This is called the stuffing-box (Figs. 9 and 10). It 
is a brass casting that the shaft goes through, with a hole 
bored out larger than the shaft, so that lamp-wicking or 
hemp packing dipped in oil and graphite can be tucked in 
around the shaft and squeezed up around it tightly enough 
to keep out the water, while the graphite and oil allow the 
shaft to turn freely against the packing. By boring a 
hole through a block of wood big enough at its end to have 
this stuffing-box bolted to it over the hole, and by fitting 

244 






suck- 



Fig* t 




Fig* 4 





Fig. 7 



Fig. 8 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

this block, which is called the shaft-log, accurately to the 
inner bottom of the skiff so that the fish-line previously 
referred to will pass exactly through the center of the hole, 
we have a water-tight place for the shaft to go out (Fig. 4). 
Be careful to make a close fit between this shaft-log and 
the bottom boards of the boat. Before you bolt the shaft-log 
down, paint the wood with thick white lead-paint. Lay a 
piece of muslin in this, paint that, and then lay the shaft- 
log down and bolt it fast with long carriage-bolts (Fig. 
5). If you can't get carriage-bolts long enough take some 
round iron rods and rivet the ends over iron "clinch" 
rings made for that purpose. They are different from a 
common flat washer in that they are thicker and tapered 
thin at the edges. The inside of the hole is beveled out 
to let the iron rod swell and form a head that will not 
pull through. (Fig. 6). 

Shaft-Hanger 

If the after end of the shaft near the propeller were not 
held firmly it would wobble about. To hold it we need what 
is called a shaft-hanger (Fig. 7 and Fig. 8). This is a 
brace with a bearing for the shaft to turn in. The bear- 
ings are brass castings with the shaft-hole lined with babbit 
metal, which is the only metal that can stand the heat 
generated by the rapidly revolving shaft without getting 
so hot as to expand and bind the shaft. In large ships they 
formerly used a kind of very hard, oily wood called lignum- 
vitae. It will be necessary to buy the shaft-hanger, unless 
you wish to exercise your ingenuity and make one with 
the aid of a plumber, who must melt and run in the babbit 

246 



INSTALLING THE ENGINE 

metal, If, however, one wishes to fit a piece of wood 
outside, similar to the shaft-log inside, a stern - bearing 
can be used such as some engine makers supply with the 
motor as part of the outfit. The stern-bearing is a brass 
casting much like a stuffing-box, except that the bearing 
has no part to screw up in order to make it water-tight. It 
is simply a bearing lined inside with babbit metal. A great 
many boats do not have both the stuffing-box and stern- 
bearing. Instead they have only a stuffing-box (Fig. 10), 
and that answers both purposes by being placed on the 
outside. The disadvantage of this is that if the packing 
around the shaft wears so that it begins to leak one cannot 
tighten it up from the inside. It will be necessary to haul 
the stern of the boat out to get at the stuffing-box in order 
to tighten it up with a monkey-wrench. 

If a floating log should be hit by the propeller with suffi- 
cient force to bend the shaft this stuffing-box would soon 
become worn and a bad leak would be caused. It requires 
some neat carpenter work to fit this deadwood piece for 
the stuffing-box, and there is a much simpler way of accom- 
plishing the same result at but little if any more cost, and 
certainly in much less time. This is by buying a metal 
shaft-log, as it is called — a flat casting (Fig. 9) that can 
be screwed flat into the surface of the boards with the 
stuffing-box in one piece. Amateurs will find this an easy 
way to overcome a difficulty. Shaft -hangers too can be 
purchased which are adjustable to any desired depth, 
either in a single strut (Fig. 8) or of the double or V 
type with two legs (Fig. 7). 



247 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Lining Up the Shaft 

When the stuffing-box is all fitted run the propeller-shaft 
through it up to the motor's shaft and see how the two 
meet. They should be in perfect line, one with the other. 
To see if they are, lay a straight edge along the joint and 




Fig. 9 




Fig. 10 



Stra^M Edge 



VropeWer Shaft 



J | Er?gme 5hg^ 
Fig. H 




Fig. 12 



30 



Ell 



Fig. 13 



Fig. 14 



winwik 



tonfl.1 



Fig. 15 



see that it fits flat on top, on both sides, and underneath 
(Fig. 11). Never pull the shaft out of a true line to force 
it into the coupling on the engine-shaft. In running ma- 

248 



INSTALLING THE ENGINE 

chinery one must be particular about such things. The 
two shafts must be exactly in line. 

If the bottom of the boat is so flat that it will tip the 
engine at too great an angle to line it up true with the pro- 
peller-shaft, a^ universal joint (Fig. 12) can be used to unite 
the two shafts and permit the engine to be set nearly if 
not quite level while the shaft slants down. 

Shaft-Couplings 

Two kinds of couplings may be used for shafts — the 
flanged and the sleeve coupling. The flanged coupling 
(Fig. 13) consists of two round, flat discs that are either 
keyed or set by set-screws to the ends of the shafts, and the 
faces when brought together are bolted to each other. 

The sleeve coupling (Fig. 14) is like a short, heavy piece 
of pipe split in two. These halves clamp down over the 
two ends and are bolted to each other. Some are made 
so that they take a larger shaft at one end than at the 
other. When this is the case they are called reducing 
couplings (Fig. 15), and they are employed when the engine- 
shaft is larger than the propeller-shaft, which is often the 
case. 

Propellers 

The engine makers, by actual test of motors of different 
horse-powers, have found out just which propeller gives the 
best results. A beginner, therefore, should adopt their 
selection of the propeller best adapted to a given motor. 

It will be time enough to experiment with propellers 

17 249 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



after one has learned something by actual experience. 
There are a great many different kinds of propellers, wheels 
or screws as they are variously called, some good, some 
poor, and some intended for a special kind of work. But 





Fig. 16 



Fig. 17 



Fig. 18 




Fig. 19 



until one has learned to distinguish a true propeller from 
an expanding pitch it is better to use what the maker sends. 

As in any other wheel, the central part of a propeller is 
called the hub. The fan-like projections are called the 
blades. According to the work there may be two, three, 
or four blades. 

A tug-boat, with a big, heavy, slow-moving hull intended 

250 



INSTALLING THE ENGINE 

to pull other heavy vessels, generally has four large, wide 
blades, while a light racing hull designed for speed has only 
two or three blades of a much smaller area. 

The diameter of a propeller is its distance from tip to 
tip across the wheel. The pitch is a little more difficult to 
explain. It is the distance the blades are supposed to 
advance in one complete revolution. Look at an ordinary 
wood screw, the pitch there is the distance from one thread 
or edge of the screw to the next. A slow-going working 
boat has a propeller that does not go ahead very far, while 
a racer's does. The former is termed a low-pitched wheel, 
while the latter is a high-pitched one. 

The way the propellers are fastened to the shafts varies 
in outfits of varying prices. The cheaper ones merely slide 
upon the shaft, and are kept from sliding around by a 
couple of set-screws which are fastened down hard against 
the shaft (Fig. 16). It is generally necessary to file a slight 
dent in the shaft to make these screws hold. A far better 
way is to cut a slot, or " key- way," in both shaft and pro- 
peller-hub (Fig. 17). This stops the propeller from slip- 
ping around on the shaft; but a better way is to taper the 
end of the shaft and have a tapered hole in the propeller 
with a key-way cut in both, and a nut screwed on the end 
of the shaft to prevent the propeller from slipping back. 
A second nut called a lock-nut is sometimes screwed up 
against the first one to prevent it from working loose, 
or a split or cotter pin is put through a small hole 
bored through the shaft to answer the same purpose 
(Fig. 18). 

251 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Exhaust-Piping 

We now have the engine connected to the propeller-shaft. 
The next task is to pipe the exhaust. On high-speed racing 
boats the noise and smoke shoot straight out into the air 
through a short length of pipe which may be high enough 
to blow the smoke overhead, or the pipe may lead to one 
side (Fig. 19). As this pipe becomes very hot, it must 
be of fairly heavy iron and of large enough diameter to 
carry off all the burnt gases. There is not much comfort 
in one of these noisy boats. It is necessary to shout in 
order to be heard, and the smoke and oil spatters all over 
the face and clothes. 

All this can be overcome by running the exhaust through 
a muffler or silencer (Fig. 20), which deadens the sound, 
and from the muffler out through the stern or side of the 
boat. 

Where the exhaust-pipe comes out of the motor its heat 
would burn all the paint off if it were left bare, and, there- 
fore, most of the engines are fitted with what are called 
water- jacketed elbows or manifolds (Fig. 21). Around the 
cylinder-head, where it is doubled and kept cool by being 
filled with water, holes are now provided to let some of 
this water run out around the exhaust-pipe, which is a 
special double casting. This water cools the inner pipe, 
through which the hot exhaust, or used-up gases, are passing 
out. When these gases cool they condense, or become 
smaller, and if cooled enough the exhaust can be made to 
come out so quietly that it is not objectionable. Besides 
cooling the pipe from the outside with water it is a good 

252 



INSTALLING THE ENGINE 



plan to turn some water into the exhaust-pipe. The in- 
tense heat, of course, almost immediately turns it into 
steam; but the sharp, noisy crack and bang of the exhaust, 
like a cannon's report, is completely stopped by the water. 



Wafer 





k evt>. 
u f f,cr .E5 

[KIUUUI ! r 1 — 



-Water ) 



Fig. 20 




-Brass Pipe 



block 



Fig. 22 



To cut threads on a one-and-a-half -inch pipe for a three- 
horse-power motor is a task that should be left to a plumber or 
pipe-fitter. He has the necessary tools and cutters, and from 
him one can probably buy all the necessary elbows and 
unions to connect up the pipes. For the circulating water 

253 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

brass piping is generally used, and this can be arranged 
at the same time, although this part is sometimes connected 
up with rubber hose clamped tightly to short brass nipples 
over which it fits. For the motor a one-half -inch brass 
pipe is large enough. When a pipe runs out through the 
side or bottom of a boat it is a good plan to fit an oak block 
on the inside to strengthen it. Set it in white lead to make 
it water-tight, and screw or rivet it fast to the planks. 
Have a thread cut on the pipe long enough not only to 
screw through the wood, but to take a thin, flat nut on the 
inside and outside (Fig. 22). These will keep the pipe 
from shaking loose with the vibration. 

Water-Intake 

You will find on the motor a water-pump gear driven 
from the crank-shaft of the engine. Some use a regular 
plunger-pump (Fig. 23) to suck the water in from outside 
the hull of the boat and force it to flow all around the 
cylinder in the water-jacket and out overboard again. 
Others use a round, flat pump consisting of two gear-wheels 
(Fig. 24), and still others use various makes of centrifugal 
pumps (Fig. 25); but all are for the same purpose. Those 
pumps get their supply of water from a pipe which goes 
through the bottom of the boat well down under water, 
so that when the boat rolls the pipe will not come out and 
suck air instead of water (Fig. 26). This also can be either 
a brass pipe or a rubber hose. Common iron pipe is apt 
to rust through and cause a leak which might sink the 
boat. In fresh water iron might last several years, but for 

254 



INSTALLING THE ENGINE 



salt water use brass by all means or else the hose. Use 
lock-nuts on the intake as previously described for the 
exhaust. If the boat is a fast one, it is a good plan to 
fasten some sort of a scoop (Fig. 27) to supply water to 
the pipe, as without something of this sort the water is 
apt to shoot past the end of the pipe so fast that but little 
of it will be sucked in by the pump, and without water the 
engine will soon run hot and give you trouble. 

The suction into this pipe may draw sea-weed, mud, or 



Fig. 25 




Fig. 28 



Fig. 27 



255 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



any floating object, choke up the pipe, and shut off the water 
supply. To prevent this a brass sieve or screen (Fig. 28) 
is generally fitted over the end. Sometimes when a small 
boat is aground at the shore this pipe becomes clogged up 
with mud; but this generally washes off after the boat has 
been running a short time. The intake-pipe, being well 
below water, would, if the pipe to the engine ever became 
broken, leak so as to sink the boat, and as a safeguard 
against such an accident this pipe generally has a valve 
or sea-cock which can be turned so as completely to shut 
off all water. In leaving the boat over night this cock should 
always be closed. 

While it might seem best to run all pipes as straight as 
possible from the motor to the outside through the planking, 
yet when one considers what happens when the shaking of 
the motor begins, one can see that something is apt to give 
way. Therefore, a turn in the pipe is advisable, for this 
allows movement to take place without breaking anything. 
Since all pipes expand when hot and contract as they cool, 
that is another reason why they should be allowed to swing. 



Chapter XXII 

GASOLENE-TANKS AND CARBURETERS 

ENGINE makers do not generally supply the tanks 
to hold the gasolene, because these are usually made 
to fit the shape of the boat in the bow (Fig. i). This is 
the most out-of-the-way place to put it on a small boat, 
and since the bow is the higher, gasolene will readily flow 
down to the engine. 

Fitting in the Tank 

Make a framework of thin strips of wood of the size 
desired for the tank, shaped to fit up in the bow. The bot- 
tom of the tank must be no lower than the carbureter on the 
engine. Take this pattern to a tinsmith and have him 
make a tank out of fairly heavy copper with a screw-plate 
of about two inches in diameter for the hole in the top 
through which the tank is to be filled, and a plate fitted 
for a quarter-inch brass pipe for the outlet about a quarter 
of an inch above the bottom in the after end or else in the 
bottom near the after end. In the center of the screw-plate 
on top have a small pinhole drilled to let air into the tank 
as the gasolene is used out of it. More than one man has 
had his engine stop, and has worked over it for a long time 
trying to find out why it stopped, only to find that it was 

2 $7 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

because the air could not get in to fill up the space left by 
the receding gasolene in the tank. Square or shaped tanks, 
as this kind is called, should have a compartment built like 
a box in the bow to hold them, with a floor of pine boards 
on which the tank may rest firmly. Punch all the nail- 
heads well into the wood, or one may rub a hole through 
the tank and cause a bad leak. After the tank is in this 
box-like compartment push some flat, smooth boards in 
alongside of it to hold it from shifting as the boat rolls, or 
it might break the pipes. 

Many people use galvanized sheet-iron tanks. If there 
is room in the boat one can buy a pressed-steel tank shaped 
just like the hot-water boiler beside the kitchen range at 
home, only smaller (Fig. 2). These tanks are the least 
likely of all to leak. Large tanks have partitions, or "swash 
plates," inside to prevent the whole bulk of oil from surg- 
ing back and forth as the boat rolls. A smarter effect is 
obtained by selecting a cylindrical tank and placing it aft, 
behind the stern seat (Fig. 3). The tank must be raised 
so that it will be above the carbureter, which can be done 
by setting it in two pieces of boards cut saddle-shaped to 
receive it. All the small, fast racers have adopted this ar- 
rangement for carrying their tanks. It prevents any leak- 
age of gasolene into the boat, and can be readily inspected, 
and all the pipe connections can be looked after. 

In large yachts, where the gasolene-tanks are below the 
floor, and even in some of the small racers, where the gaso- 
lene is carried low in the boat, a small "feed tank" is placed 
up above the motor. The gasolene is made to flow up 
into this feed tank by an air-pump, like a bicycle or auto 

258 



GASOLENE TANKS AND CARBURETERS 




Fig. 1 




Fig. 3 



inwj 



Fig. 5 



\ 



>sr/J///l)l "I""'""""'"""" """' 

*? 



Fig. 2 




Fig. 4 



tire pump. It does not take much air pressure to make 
the gasolene flow up into the feed tank, and from there it 
flows down to the carbureter itself. 



Feed Pipes 

To carry the gasolene from the tank to the carbureter 
on the engine all kinds of pipes are used, and all kinds of 
troubles experienced as a result. Some cheap outfits are 
piped with an iron pipe, but it is not the best. Some use 

259 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

brass pipes, some block tin, some tin-lined lead pipes, but 
copper pipes are the cleanest .and least likely to get choked 
up. Gasolene is a very thin fluid, and it will leak through 
a pipe which will hold water securely. It is also lighter 
than water, so that any water which gets into a tank of 
gasolene will sink to the bottom. More or less dirt always 
gets into a tank, and even in a clean tank a thick yellow 
gum is generated from impurities in the gasolene, which 
clogs up the pipe and causes the engine to stop. All this 
makes it advisable to have a sort of trap or separator (Fig. 
4), to catch this dirt before it can reach the small pipe. 
These separators should be connected up close to the tank, 
so as to catch the dirt as soon as it comes out. They can 
be opened occasionally and the dirt removed. A boat will 
run sometimes for days and not give any trouble, and then 
on some windy day when there is a great deal of motion 
the gasolene in the tank is shaken up so violently as to stir 
up all the scale, dirt, and gum, and unless there is a sep- 
arator to catch it this dirt chokes off the supply of fuel. 
The only precaution taken where there is no separator is 
to fit a piece of very fine wire gauze into the ends of the 
pipe, so that no dirt can get back onto the small needle 
valve in the carbureter. 

The brass nipple which screws up into the tank, if the 
outlet is in the bottom, should extend up about a quarter 
or an eighth of an inch, so that dirt cannot get into it. It 
should not be flush with the bottom. A separator is usually 
designed to be connected to a nipple coming out of the after 
end of the tank, with a stop-cock between. The gasolene 
comes in at the top of the separator, goes down and comes 

260 



GASOLENE-TANKS AND CARBURETERS 

up through a fine wire-gauze screen, and flows out the other 
side at the top, leaving any dirt to settle and go out at the 
opening in the bottom. These separators also hold the 
water and by opening a small "pet-cock," like a little faucet, 
this water can be drained off. One can see the water lying 
in bubbles in the gasolene very much as heavier oils lie 
in water. 

To this separator connect the annealed copper feed-pipe 
with a union, and have all such joints sweated and brazed 
or soldered, for gasolene will go through most screw joints. 
The best thing to stop it is to dip the threads into shellac 
before screwing them together. That makes an oil- tight 
joint, but not so good a one as a soldered joint. The dif- 
ference between a hard copper pipe and annealed copper 
pipe is that the latter is soft, and it can be bent without 
breaking it, so that it can be led along in the boat's lockers 
or under the seats, where it will not be trodden upon and 
crushed flat, and, also, using one piece only, it can be bent 
to lead to the carbureter. If brass pipe is used there must 
be several joints in order to make the turns. 

Have another union (Fig. 5) at the carbureter, so that 
if the pipe gets stopped up you can disconnect it at each 
end and clean it out. 

The Carbureter 

There have been many references to the carbureter (Fig. 
6), and now we will explain it in detail. It is a part of 
the 'motor; a rather formidable-looking brass contrivance 
whose whole duty is to receive the gasolene as a liquid and 
to mix it with air in order to make a high explosive gas. 

261 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



This mixture is led through pipes into the base of the 
engine. In four-cycle engines it is led up to the top of the 
cylinders above the piston, but in a small, three-horse-power, 
two-cycle engine it goes into the base and is sucked out, 
at each revolution, into the top through what is called the 
1 'by-pass.'' 

The carbureter is generally furnished to the buyer with 
the motor, though many engine manufacturers give a 
choice of several different makes. The kind of carbureter 
which a man has grown accustomed to is apt to be the best 





Fig. 6 

in his opinion, and all makes of carbureter are sold and 
used. The principal trouble with them all is that many 
of those who use them do not understand them, and will 
not take the trouble to study up the actions that take place 
at different points of adjustment in the carbureter. 

The gasolene enters the carbureter through a very small 
hole, which is called the needle valve, and as the piston of 
the engine goes up it creates a suction like that in any 
pump. This sucks a supply of air from the carbureter, 
since that is the only inlet to the engine-base open at that 

262 



GASOLENE-TANKS AND CARBURETERS 



time, and as this air has to come through a regular reser- 
voir of gasolene it becomes mixed with the fumes and forms 
an explosive gas. One part of gasolene to four parts of 
air makes a weak explosive mixture; one to eight a violent 
explosive; and one to thirty-three will not explode. Some- 
times there is too little air admitted and the engine sucks 
up a charge of gasolene vapor that is " too rich" a mixture, 
and when one tries to start the motor this gas has not 
enough air mixed with it to be explosive. On the other 
hand, the reverse may be the case. There may be too much 
air and not enough gasolene. Then the mixture is "too 
lean" or "too poor" to explode. When the air is warm 
and dry it mixes with the gasolene far better than on a 
cold, wet, or foggy day when the air is charged with water, 
and for that reason many makers of engines arrange the 
pipe of the carbureter so that it draws in the hot air from 
around or near the exhaust pipe. 

How to Start the Moter 

To start the motor when it has stood unused for some 
time, so that it would require considerable cranking of the 
engine by hand in order to suck up and com- 
press an explosive charge from the base, it is 
customary to have a little cock, or "priming 
cup" (Fig. 7), in the top or side of the cylin- 
der-head through which some gasolene can be 
put directly into the head of the cylinder. 
Keep a "squirt can" full of gasolene in the fig. 7 
locker for this purpose. Some people drain a 
little gasolene from their carbureter into a tin can or cup 

263 




BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

and try to pour it into the tiny priming cup, with the result 
that in getting a thimbleful into the engine they spill more 
than half. 

By rocking the fly-wheel enough to move the piston up 
and down an inch or so, after opening the pet-cock, this 
gasolene in the priming cup is sucked into the cylinder- 
head. Rock the fly-wheel a couple of times to mix this 
gasolene, and then throw the wheel clear around. If the 
gasolene is properly mixed, the engine will start and sparks 
will shoot up through the priming cup, which should be 
closed, of course, before one begins to crank. 

Sometimes the carbureter gets too much gasolene, and 
becomes ' 'flooded." In this case turn off the feed-pipe 
from the tank and drain out the carbureter. Sometimes 
the base of the engine is also flooded. Shut off the supply 
of gasolene by screwing the needle valve down tight, open 
the pet-cocks, and turn the fly-wheel over by hand several 
times. A ' ' back fire ' ' — when the motor explodes the charge 
in the base and spits out fire through the carbureter — is 
caused when the mixture is so weak and has so little gaso- 
lene that it is slow to ignite and burns so long that it is 
still burning when the fresh charge is coming up through 
the by-pass. Then the fresh charge is ignited and it blows 
back through the by-pass into the base. It is a sign that 
the engine is not getting enough gasolene. 



Chapter XXIII 

IGNITION AND OILING 

THERE are two ways to fire the charges of explosive 
gas in the cylinder-head by an electric spark. In the 
"make-and-break" system the spark is obtained by means 
of a movable arm or point of metal which touches another 
point inside the cylinder, and when the spark is needed 
this movable arm is suddenly tripped on the outside by a 
push-rod worked from the main shaft of the engine. As the 
push-rod snaps it away from the other point, breaking the 
flow or current of electricity, it produces a spark or flash of 
flame which fires the charge. The action is like that when 
one snaps the two wires from a dry battery together to see 
whether it is a "live" battery or a "dead" one. If it is 
alive — that is, capable of giving out electricity — it will make 
a spark as the two wires snap apart. It is also sometimes 
referred to as a "wipe" or "touch" spark to distinguish it 
from the "jump" spark. 

Jump-spark Motors 

The "jump-spark" motors do not have an arm to trip. 
Instead they have a revolving shaft which is turned by the 
engine shaft, and on top of this is a flat, round rubber box 
is 265 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS ^ 

called the "timer" (Fig. i), because there is a finger on 
the shaft which revolves with it, and every time it passes 
a certain spot in this box it touches metal and makes an 
electrical contact. In this way it turns 
<5G n^^SL on the electricity to the spark-plug for 
^^--^ ^3^^ ^ a second, and in jumping this small 
<~&^ gap between the two fine wire points 
sjjh on the end of the spark-plug (Fig. 6, 
[1 \ see page 241), which is screwed down 
p. j into the cylinder, it produces a bright 

spark as the electricity jumps from 
one point to the other, and this ignites the gasolene vapor. 
To distinguish one from the other, think of the first one, 
or "make-and-break," as a stream of water flowing natural- 
ly through a small pipe, and think of the second, or "jump 
spark," as a stream with a pump behind it forcing it through 
swiftly. The first is termed a low-tension and the second 
a high-tension current of electricity. In the case of a 
"make-and-break" motor there are about six dry cells or 
dry batteries (Fig. 6), a spark-coil, or primary coil as it is 
called (Fig. 3), a switch (Fig. 4), and some insulated wire. 

Cells and Wires 

These cells should be fitted into a box to keep them from 
rolling about and breaking the wire connections. Cut 
short lengths of wire or buy the regular connections made 
for this purpose (Fig. 5), and couple one cell to another. 
Lay bare the end of the wire for about three-quarters of 
an inch, and turn it around or thrust it through the small 

266 



IGNITION AND OILING 



hole in the center or carbon post of one cell and the side 
or zinc post of the next cell. Put the spark-coil under a 
seat or in a locker where it will not get wet, for water will 
ruin it. Attach a wire to the last zinc or side post of the 
cells, and run it under the seat along the side of the boat, 
high enough up to keep it as dry as possible until it reaches 
the engine. Then pass it down and attach it to one of 
the nuts which hold the base of the engine (Fig. 6). This 
is the ground wire. The other wire should lead to one end 
of the coil. In going through the primary coil the elec- 
tricity is increased in force and it is carried out by a wire 
from the other end; or it may be on the same end, but 
through a different post. From this outlet the second 
wire goes to the arm which causes the "make-and-break" 
spark; but at a convenient spot this wire should be cut 
and the ends attached to a switch, so that the current can 
be cut off when not in use. (Fig. 4.) 

In the case of a " jump-spark" motor the batteries are 
wired together just the same, but the induction-coil is dif- 
ferent. It has a "vibrator," or "buzzer," as some call it, 
on one end, and it has another post to take a third wire. 

One wire, called the ground wire, leads from the side 
post of the dry cell to a screw on the handle of the timer- 
lever. A switch to throw off the current should be put 
somewhere along this wire. The other wire, from the 
center post of the cells, leads to a screw at one end of the 
coil-box. From the other screw on the same end of the 
coil a wire should be run to the screw on the side of the 
timer-box. These primary wires are the usual small in- 
sulated wires, but a larger, heavy secondary wire should 

267 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 







Fig. 2 




Fig. 3 




Fig. 4 



MQy^msMn: 







■ - - >U4UHH ^"Q 



f^S-OL Mimp Biq* 5 (O-^o "&0 

v J fit")! 1 /£■/.,■■ ■:■ " ! y & I s*. — — • ^^^^^ 



m 





i 




Fig.6 

Fig. 7 Fig. 8 

lead from the spark-plug to a screw at the side of the coil- 
box. This may be regarded as the high-pressure wire. It 
carries a great deal of electricity, as you are apt to find 
out if you touch it. In this arrangement the timer is 

268 



IGNITION AND OILING 



geared in such a way that every time the piston comes up 
to the top of the cylinder its revolving ringer makes a con- 
tact with the metal and a current of electricity races 
through the wires. The vibrator begins to buzz, and a 
hot spark jumps across the points of the spark-plug as long 
as this finger touches the metal contact point in the timer- 
box. This is only a fraction of a second when the engine 
is running. 

If the vibrator does not buzz there is no spark, and it 
may be necessary to turn the screw which adjusts the move- 
ment of the vibrator. As one changes the adjustment of 
this screw a humming begins and grows louder, but the 
action of the engine, after a little practice, will show when 
the adjustment of the vibrator is the best. 

Lubrication or Oiling 

Any piece of machinery where two pieces of metal are 
rubbed together will get hot unless the points of contact 
are oiled, and a gasolene-engine is no exception to this rule. 
In the cylinder the piston slides up and down four hundred 
or more times a minute, and in a very hot place at that. 
On our little motor there is a grease-cup on each end 
of the crank -skaft bearings, and one where the main 
shaft of the engine revolves in babbited bearings, and an- 
other in the base of the engine. On a small brass 
pipe screwed into the side of the cylinder is a good-sized 
glass oil-cup to oil the inner wall of the cylinder where the 
piston slides. The grease-cups (Fig. 7) have a top which 
screws up and down. Unscrew and remove the top, and 

269 



BOATI NG BOOK FOR BOYS 

with a flat, thin stick fill both the cup and the top with 
grease. Every time you turn the top down a thread of 
the screw you squeeze some of this heavy grease down 
through a small pipe, and if the bearing gets so warm that 
it needs oil it will melt enough of this grease to make it 
flow around and lubricate the bearing. The oil-cup (Fig. 
8) is to be filled with a thinner oil by pouring this into the 
filling hole, which has a little flat cover that slides sideways. 
When the engine is running, the oil-cup can be closed by 
turning down the little hinged lever handle on the top of 
the oil-cup. Then refill it and open the feed-lever again. 
Don't forget to see that these levers are up every time the 
engine is running and closed when it is stopped. The oil 
used in the cylinder must be of good quality. If it is not 
it will develop hard particles of carbon as it is used up by 
the heat. One would not think these bits of carbon capable 
of doing much harm, but when they get between the piston 
and the cylinder wall, and are rubbed up and down over 
four hundred times a minute, they are likely to scratch 
the smooth steel surface, and this causes more friction and 
heat. 

The base of the motor is made to act as an oil reservoir 
or tank. This should have enough oil put into it so that 
every time the connecting rod (the arm that comes from 
the piston to the crank-shaft) comes down it splashes into 
this oil and gives the interior a little oil bath. 

It is a common custom now to pour some lubricating oil 
into the gasolene-tank along with the gasolene, and let it 
work through to the motor with the latter. The proper 
mixture is not over a pint of lubricating oil to every five 

270 



IGNITION AND OILING 



gallons of gasolene. Pour the oil into the gasolene and stir 
it up well. Mix the compound thoroughly before you pour 
it into the gasolene- tank. Then it will stay mixed and will 
not settle. 

Grease-cups 

The grease-cups act automatically. The grease will not 
run unless the turning of the shaft causes heat, which will 
thin the grease. But with oil-cups one has to be contin- 
ually on the watch to see that they are open when the en- 
gine is running and closed when it is not. So many people 
have forgotten to close or open these cups, and so many 
engines have been scratched up inside as a result, that 
engine-makers, particularly in the larger sizes of motors, 
have adopted the force-feed system of lubrication as being 
safer. This feeds oil when the engine runs, and stops 





Fig. 9 



Fig. SO 

feeding oil when the engine stops (Fig. 9). It consists 
of a reservoir of oil generally attached to the back of the 
motor, and there is a leather belt from a pulley on the shaft 

271 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

to a pulley on the oiler which pumps a supply of oil into 
four, six, eight, or ten pipes that run to the various parts 
of the engine which need oiling (Fig. 10). Little glass 
windows permit one to watch each of the lines of pipes, 
and to see the oil dropping. In some cases, where the belt 
cannot be used, the oiler pump is worked by a ratchet-arm. 

Reverse-gear 

Most small single - cylinder engines have the propeller- 
shaft fastened direct to the engine (Fig. n). A reverse- 
gear (Fig. 13) takes more room than some of the small, 
cheap boats will allow. It is a very convenient and valu- 
able addition when it can be used, since with it the engine 
alone can be started with the propeller standing still, and 
when that is running and the boat is headed out clear of 
the float and of other boats, you take the steering rope or 
wheel in one hand and with the other throw in the lever 
of the reverse-gear so that it turns the propeller, and the 
boat will be driven ahead. In case of emergency, when 
another boat comes unexpectedly in the way, one can push 
the lever to the other side and instantly reverse the pro- 
peller so that it will back up and stop the boat. 

It is possible to reverse the motor itself without a re- 
verse-gear, if one becomes expert enough to do so, but it 
requires considerable practice. This can be done by pull- 
ing out the switch and, when the engine slows down, throw- 
ing in the switch with the spark so advanced that it will 
fire the charge when the piston is coming up. This kicks 
it back again and makes the engine reverse. This should 

27? 



IGNITION AND OILING 




Fig.i4 



be practised where one has plenty of room. Don't rely on 
making a landing in this way until you are sure you can 
catch the engine just right, or you may bump something 
very hard. Even if you have not room in your small skiff 
for a regular reverse-gear, which is now made small enough 
for almost any boat, there is still another way of having 

273 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

a positive control over the propeller. You can put in what 
is called a reversing-propeller (Fig. 14). This has a solid 
shaft inside of a hollow pipe. The inner shaft is coupled 
to the engine and does the turning, while the outer one, by 
means of gears or a spiral slot working on a pin in the blades 
of the propeller, turns the blades and pushes the boat 
ahead, or merely turns around, cutting edgeways through 
the water so that the boat stands still or backs up. The 
blades are swiveled into the hub so that they can turn as 
required. 

In the reverse-gears (Fig. 13) the engine-shaft and the 
propeller-shaft do not meet. One is fastened into one end 
of the reverse-gear, the other into the opposite end. In 
going ahead the whole case revolves. In stopping the 
engine-shaft alone revolves idly in the gear-case, and in 
reversing the outer shell is clamped fast with a friction 
band to hold it solid while gear-wheels inside are thrown 
against each other in such a way that while the engine is 
still turning over in the same direction the propeller-shaft 
is made to revolve in the opposite direction. In high-speed 
boats the engine is often set level and the shaft slanted at 
any angle desired. This is done by having a knuckle- 
joint attachment (Fig. 12) between the engine and the 
propeller-shaft. 



Chapter XXIV 

RUNNING THE ENGINE 

NEARLY every engine-maker sends with the engine a 
book of instructions telling just how to start the en- 
gine after it is placed in the boat and bolted down, piped, 
and wired. But there are many little things which one 
must learn by experience. 

Let us proceed with the engine just as we would if the 
boat were in the water ready to start. At this point every 
one, very naturally, is impatient for a trial run. Don't 
forget one thing — first, last, and all the time keep your 
mind on the fact that you are in a boat, and that the safety 
and success of the cruise depends upon yourself. You must 
use your head and think of everything that will be needed 
before, you start. If you are a mile from the dock when 
you need an anchor or an oar, it will do you no good to 
know that they are on that dock. Take along enough 
lubricating oil and also the tools that belong with the 
engine. 

Filling the Gasolene-tank 

Fill the gasolene- tank first. This is the fuel which makes 
the engine go, and, since it has to flow into the carbureter 
through a little pin-hole (the needle-valve), see that no dirt 

275 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

goes into the tank along with the gasolene. Have a per- 
fectly clean funnel, which can be bought fitted with a very 
fine copper gauze strainer to catch any dirt. Even then it 
is safer to put a piece of chamois skin over the top of the 
funnel, and to sift the gasolene through that. If cham- 
ois skin is not available, use a clean piece of linen or cotton 
cloth. Gasolene will go through a chamois skin while water 
will not. You can see if there is any water by the bubbles 
which will be left on the chamois after the gasolene has 
sifted through. Water will cause trouble. Naturally an 
engine will not run on it. 

The man who sells the gasolene generally brings it in 
five-gallon cans. Before you pour it in, fill a pint measure 
full of cylinder-oil, pour it into the gasolene, and with a 
clean stick stir the whole mixture well together. The gaso- 
lene will cut the oil into such fine particles that they can- 
not be seen; but in the cylinder of the engine, when the 
gasolene is burned up, this oil is spread in a thin film all 
over the piston, making it slippery. 

How to Tell Gasolene 

It is puzzling sometimes to know whether one is getting 
gasolene or kerosene. They look alike and smell so nearly 
alike that some people cannot tell the difference. One 
way is to take a little in your hand and rub it with one 
finger. If it is kerosene it will not evaporate as quickly 
as gasolene, and it will feel greasy and oily, whereas gasolene 
is clear like water and evaporates completely. There is a 
little glass instrument like a thermometer with a scale 

276 



RUNNING THE ENGINE 



marked on it, and by inserting this in the can the weight 
or specific gravity of the liquid can be measured. These 
hydrometers are supposed to be used at a temperature of 
6o° F. When a liquid is heated its weight becomes less. 
If it is colder it becomes heavier. In order to secure ac- 
curate measurement of a liquid some of these hydrometers 
have a thermometer in them which shows the temperature 
of the liquid as well as its specific gravity. 

Gasolene evaporates very quickly when warm, but very 
slowly in cold weather. It is not the gasolene in its liquid or 
oil form that explodes, but the gas or vapor from it when 
mixed with just the right amount of air. For this reason, 
when filling the tank, or at any time when gasolene is ex- 
posed, it is essential to be very careful that no one strikes 
matches or smokes or has any light. Don't spill the gaso- 
lene over the tank and into the bottom of the boat, for it 
will make an explosive gas which is particularly dangerous, 
because, like the fire-damp in a coal-mine, it does not rise, 
but settles down in the boat. Most gases rise, but this 
does not. Therefore, be careful to see that there are no 
leaks in tank or piping. Open up all the hatches or open- 
ings and let the wind blow through the boat to carry off 
all the gas it can. 

In spite of all precautions water sometimes gets into the 
gasolene- tank. Often this is due to the sweat which forms 
in the tank in warm weather as the moisture in the air 
condenses on the side of the tank. The water is heavier 
than the gasolene and sinks to the bottom. By opening 
the little valve in the bottom of the separator this water and 
dirt can be drawn off and thrown away. Keep a clean stick 

277 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

of wood or an iron rod to measure the height of the gaso- 
lene in the tank. Never use a dirty stick, and do not wash 
a stick off in the water and then thrust it into the gasolene. 
The water is almost as likely to stop the engine as the dirt. 

Filling the Grease-cups 

Every boy knows that the farmer puts axle-grease on the 
axles of his wagon to make them turn easily. For the 
same reason you must put some grease on the two bearings 
where the shaft turns in the engine-bed. " Albany grease," 
which is a thick, brown paste like vaseline or soft, brown 
soap in appearance, is used for this purpose. Unscrew the 
cap on the brass grease-cup and fill both the inside of the 
cover and the cup itself, using a thin, flat piece of wood to 
dig the grease out of the can. 

As the steel engine-shaft revolves in the bronze or babbit- 
metal bearing the constant rubbing produces heat. Be- 
fore the metals get very warm this Albany grease begins to 
melt and run in between the two, making them slip easily 
and keeping them cool. 

Oil in the Base 

The engine-maker usually explains how much oil it requires 
in the base to fill the engine so that the crank, as it swings 
around, will dip into it and splash the oil around, thus lubri- 
cating the moving parts. 

The crank should dip about half an inch into the oil. 
If there is too much oil it will get upon the sparking-points 
and prevent the proper ignition of the gas. Under the 

278 



RUNNING THE ENGINE 



motor a cock or a plug is generally fitted to permit the 
dra wing-off of this oil when it gets too deep. In installing 
the motor see that a place is cut in the engine-bed large 
enough to put one's hand in to open this cock or plug hole. 
Sometimes it is almost impossible to pour the oil from a can 
into a funnel so that it will go into the base, and even if it 
could be poured in when the boat is running and rolling, 
much of it would be spilled. It is best to have one of the 
syringe-like squirt-guns called oil-guns. You can put the 
nozzle of this into a can of oil and suck it full by pulling 
the handle back, and then squirt it all, or as much as may 
be wanted, into the base or an oil-cup without spilling a 
drop. 

To Start the Engine 

Give each of the grease-cups a half -turn, and open the 
cock at the gasolene - tank to let gasolene run back to 
the carbureter. Give the needle- valve on the carbureter 
a half -turn, and open the cocks in the circulating water- 
pipe line, not forgetting the sea-cock where the pipe comes 
through the bottom of the boat. Turn on the switch, and, 
with the sparking device set so it does not fire the charge 
until the fly-wheel has passed the center, rock the fly-wheel 
back and forth so that the piston, as it goes up and down 
inside the engine, acts as a pump to suck in a charge of gaso- 
lene, and then quickly turn the fly-wheel a couple of times 
all the way round. With a make-and-break engine one 
can hear the points of the igniter inside the engine snap 
together. With a jump-spark motor one hears a buzzing 

279 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

every time the electric contact is made by the timer. Don't 
let this buzzing sound continue. This only uses up the 
batteries unnecessarily. Turn the fly-wheel just a little 
and it will stop. 

Remember that there are two things necessary to make 
an engine run. One is a mixture of gasolene and air, which 
is explosive; the other is a spark to ignite it. Of these two 
the former is the harder to get right the first time. After 
that the adjustment will be very small, and the ignition is 
the thing to be looked after. A beginner is more apt to 
feed too much gasolene to the carbureter than too little. 
If this is done, the mixture will be too heavily charged with 
gasolene vapor to ignite. If, after rocking the wheel sev- 
eral times and then turning the fly-wheel over a couple of 
turns, you do not succeed in starting the engine, close the 
needle- valve on the carbureter, open the relief or pet cock 
on the side or top of the engine, throw off the switch, and 
turn the fly-wheel over a few times. You can tell by the 
rich smell of gasolene which comes out of the pet-cock if 
there is too much gasolene. After pumping some of this 
over-rich gas out this way, close the cock, throw in the 
switch, and try to start again. After a few attempts you 
should be rewarded for your efforts by a bang like a shot, 
followed by action. When the gasolene is used up after 
the engine has run a few minutes, the engine ' 'sneezes." 
It seems to explode in the lower part, and blows out through 
the carbureter. That is a sign that more gasolene is needed. 
In this case turn on the needle- valve a little, until the engine 
runs smoothly. 

280 



RUNNING THE ENGINE 



In Case of Difficulty 

If the engine is very hard to turn over by hand, open the 
relief -cock in the top. This will make it easier by breaking 
up the compression and relieving the vacuum by admitting 
air. The relief-cock can be shut as soon as the engine starts 
and spits fire through the pet-cock. Another way is to put 
some gasolene in an oil-can and fill the priming-cup from it. 
Let the gasolene run into the engine and turn the fly-wheel 
until this charge explodes. The start thus given will run 
the engine until it sucks up a new charge from the crank- 
case, and then it will continue to run. If, after priming 
the engine in this way and turning the fly-wheel over sev- 
eral times with the relief-cock open, the engine does not 
explode the charge, it is a pretty sure sign that it is flooded, 
provided the ignition is all right. This means that every- 
thing must be drained out through the cock or plug in the 
bottom of the engine-base. Don't forget to refill the base 
with lubricating oil afterward. 

When you have once found the point at which the needle- 
valve makes the engine run the best, leave it alone. Occa- 
sionally, however, a change in the weather will require more 
or less air to be let in through the air-intake pipe on the 
carbureter. Where this intake pipe draws its air from the 
open such adjustment will be needed more than if it sucks 
in its air from a pipe around the outside of the exhaust- 
pipe, where the air is heated and dry. This dry air takes 
up more of the gas vapor and makes a better mixture 'than 
when cold or damp air is drawn directly into the carbureter. 
This mixing of the gasolene and the air requires care and 

19 281 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS _ 

thought. To get the most out of the least gasolene, and 
to make it last longest, are points which one can experiment 
on for some time. With the proper mixture and care, it 
will be surprising to find how little gasolene will run the 
engine. One-half of a pint an hour for each horse-power of the 
engine is the usual amount allowed by the manufacturers. 
A two-horse-power engine will use up a pint an hour; a 
four-horse-power a quart, and so on. 

If the gasolene seems to feed all right and yet there is no 
explosion in the cylinder-head of the engine, look over the 
electric outfit, the trigger, as it were, that should fire off the 
charge. Perhaps the spark does not get inside the cylinder. 
Disconnect the wire to the igniter and wipe it across the 
iron part of the engine, and you will see by the sparks that 
snap off from it, or their absence, if the electricity is there 
or not. If it does not spark it shows that there is a loose 
wire somewhere and the flow of electricity is broken. Per- 
haps the batteries are at fault. Look for a loose wire first, 
and, if that is not the trouble, test each battery by dis- 
connecting each and touch one of the parts with a screw- 
driver or piece of wire held against the other. A spark will 
show itself unless the battery is dead. If it is, throw it out 
and put in a new one. For testing batteries there is a little 
instrument like a watch with a small wire attached, called 
an amp-meter. By touching one leg of this instrument to 
one post of the dry battery and the end of the wire to the 
other, one can read on the dial how many volts there are, 
or what the pressure of the cell indicates. If it is less than 
one and one- quarter, throw it away. It should be between 
two and two and one-half volts. By touching the other 

282 






RUNNING THE ENGINE 



leg of the instrument in the same way, the amperage, or flow 
of the battery, can be tested. This should not be less than 
six amperes. The letters V and A over the legs indicate 
volts and amperes. It is a good plan to have two sets of 
batteries always wired up in order to switch from one to 
the other at intervals, and let one rest awhile. By this 
means they will last much longer than if one is used all the 
time. 

If the batteries are all right, but still there is trouble, it 
may be that the points of the sparker inside the cylinder- 
head have become so spattered with oil that the points, when 
they separate and should make a spark, are bridged by this 
oil so that the electricity runs across the oil bridge and does 
not make a spark at all. Wipe off the points and put the 
sparking apparatus back into the cylinder. After some little 
use the points may become pitted. In that case, clean their 
ends with a fine file, so that they become bright and smooth. 
This pitting is caused by the electric current, which carries 
little tiny particles of metal, with it as it jumps across from 
one piece of metal to the other on the contact points. These 
particles are so exceedingly small that they cannot be seen 
until after some time when they have accumulated in a 
little pile. They cause irregular firing, and must be filed 
off. This accumulation can be prevented by occasionally 
reversing the flow of electricity, which is done by changing 
over the wires to the opposite terminals on the dry cells. 
This will cause the electricity to carry back the particles 
again, and therefore build up the point they have been tear- 
ing down. 

283 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Tests of the Ignition System 

If the engine uses a spark-plug and the jump-spark sys- 
tem of ignition, as many of the small engines do, test out 
that system by first seeing if the batteries are giving out 
any current. Turn the fly-wheel over until the timer 
makes a contact, and see if the vibrators on the coil buzz. 
If they don't, go over the batteries and all the wire connec- 
tions to see if there is a loose wire. Water cannot flow 
through a pipe if there is a break somewhere in the line, 
and this is the case with electricity. Perhaps the ground 
wire from the coil to the engine is broken. If the wires are 
all right, examine the switch, the timer, and the contact- 
points on the vibrator. If there is no trouble with them, 
there may be a break in the primary or first winding of the 
coil, which it is almost impossible for an amateur to remedy, 
or the coil may be wet. Get another coil and you can soon 
see if that is the trouble or not. If, however, the buzzer 
does work it is certain that all these parts are in good order, 
and that the trouble lies somewhere in the spark-plug or 
the high-tension wire. Take out the spark-plug, lay it 
down on the top of the engine with the wire still attached, 
and turn the fly-wheel until the timer again makes a con- 
tact and the electricity is sent flowing through the wires. If 
everything is in working order the spark will be easily seen as 
it snaps and cracks across the points of the spark-plug. If 
there is no spark it shows there is a leak somewhere, or 
that the points of the spark-plug are either dirty, which 
makes it harder for the electricity to jump across, or that 
the points are bent too far apart. They should only be about 

284 



RUNNING THE ENGINE 



one-sixteenth of an inch apart. Very often the porcelain 
insulation becomes cracked and the electricity escapes 
through this crack to the metal of the cylinder-head. If 
the plug has mica rings for insulation, they sometimes be- 
come so dirty that the electricity escapes through them. 
We are trying to force a tiny stream of electricity down 
through the plug with force enough to make it jump across 
from point to point inside the engine, and any break in the 
insulation will let the electricity leak, like a leak in a hose. 
It has to go through with considerable force because the 
spark has to be strong enough not only to jump the gap, 
but to do so in an atmosphere of gas that has been squeezed 
up or compressed with a pressure of many pounds. 

Practical Hints 

Try a new spark-plug if you cannot make a spark through 
the old one. Sometimes a wire will break inside of the 
insulated covering on account of the continual shaking due 
to the vibration of the engine. 

A drop of water on the point of a spark-plug will prevent 
it from sparking, and one sometimes is at a loss to know 
how it could get on the plug when the engine is all inclosed. 
But in merely standing overnight the condensation will 
produce sweat inside that wets the plug. 

Many small boats used by fishermen go out in all kinds 
of weather with only the dry cells to supply the electricity 
to ignite the engine, but it is a safer plan to have some 
sort of machine aboard that can make its own electricity. 
This is what the dynamo and magneto do. The first few 
sparks are made by the dry cells, and then, as soon as the 

285 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS __ 

engine is running, a switch throws off the dry cells and 
throws on the current which is being made by the magneto. 

These magnetos will make the electricity as fast as it is need- 
ed for the engine, and will not run down as a dry cell will do. 

There are a number of parts in a gasolene-engine, all 
simple in themselves, but all necessary for successful run- 
ning. Study them all, from the carbureter to the switch, 
and learn all about them, so that when anything happens — ■ 
if a wire shakes loose, for instance — you will know how to 
fix it. Some people run their engines year after year with 
no trouble at all, and others have trouble all the time. It 
is more the fault of the man running the engine than it is 
the engine itself. 

How to Wire Up Dry Batteries 

The wiring of a set of batteries makes a great difference 
in their life. The best way to secure long life is to have 
ten of them. Put five in each row and connect them from 
carbon to zinc, carbon to zinc, along the row. Then have 
another row of five wired the same way. Across the ends 
of these two sets of batteries connect one wire to both the 
carbon terminals and another to both zinc posts. If the 
batteries are wired this way the drain on each cell is very 
small. This is the most economical way. 

Another method is to wire up two sets of cells as described, 
only, instead of having one wire from both zinc terminals, 
run one from each to a double-throw switch. Then you can 
use one set of five cells for an hour and switch over to the 
other set. There must be two separate wires from the 
carbon posts as well. 

286 



Chapter XXV 

THE HYDROPLANE 

"TJYDRO" means water, and "plane" a flat surface. 

1 1 Hydroplane is a term for a flat surface which will 
glide over the water. If you slap water hard with your 
hand when it is open and flat you seem to be hitting a 
hard substance. When a hydroplane, driven at high speed, 
hits the water the impact is like a solid blow. The part 
of the bottom of the boat which rests on the water must 
be quite flat or the hull will roll dangerously. 

Some hydroplanes are simply flat-bottomed skiffs like 
the Gunfire, Jr. They are called monoplanes — meaning one 
plane — since the whole length of the bottom forms one 
surface. 

Where there is a jog or step in the bottom (as in the 
case of The Bug) there are two flat surfaces, one forward and 
one aft. Such a boat is called a biplane, meaning two planes. 
Some boats have three planes {Breeze I, for instance) , some 
four, five, six, or more; but anything over two planes is 
simply referred to as a hydroplane, and the number of planes 
is not specified. 

In the old days of the sail-boat the skip- jack model was 
rather looked down upon as a poor man's boat. It was so 
simple, having only straight pieces of wood for the frames, 

287 




" EDITH II." A TWENTY-FOOT RUNABOUT 




" THE BUG " 



THE HYDROPLANE 



that anybody could build one. It was only one step up 
from box-making. People used to think the more com- 
plicated a boat was, and the more difficult she was to con- 
struct, the better she would be as a racing sail -boat. 

The Simplest Model the Fastest 

Now the fastest motor-boat that can be built is the 
simplest, and the simplest is the old skip- jack style of hull 
modified a little as to beam or width in proportion to its 
length. 

If a boy can learn to run a high-speed gasolene-engine, 
there is no reason why he cannot have a very fast hydro- 
plane. In 1 910 the last day's race at Peoria, 111., was won 
by a boy in his own home-made boat. She was called the 
Pippin, an ordinary flat-bottomed skiff i8>^ feet long, 3 feet 
2 inches wide, drawing only 6 inches of water, with a 10- 
horse-power, two - cylinder, two-cycle Elk motor mak- 
ing about 1000 revolutions. The boats had to go six 
times around a five-mile triangular course. There were 
hundreds of people watching that race, and every time the 
little Pippin came around her boyish skipper, Edwin W. 
Lenck, was cheered to the echo. When that little craft 
came down the home stretch in the lead the spectators 
went wild with joy. 

Building a Hydroplane 

Now, the task of building a small, fast hydroplane 17 
feet 6 inches long and 4 feet wide is very much like build- 
ing a skiff. The keel is a perfectly straight stick of oak 

289 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

3 inches wide by i inch thick. The stem is at right angles 
to this, and is riveted to an oak knee which is riveted to 
the keel. The transom of i - inch cedar is also kneed 
to the keel. Then a temporary mold is braced on the 
keel in the middle, and the side planks, of >^-inch cedar, 
are shaped and bent around it. The forward ends are 
screwed fast to the rabbet or notch cut in the stem and 
screwed at their after ends to a piece of i-inch by 2 -inch 
oak, also fastened either by copper rivets or screws to the 
transom. As the cedar sides are too thin to nail the bot- 
tom to, bend a thin strip of oak 2 inches by 1 inch along the 
lower edge, rivet it fast flush with the lower edge, and plane 
the two off smooth. Put frames of oak J^ inch thick and 
2 inches deep across on top of the keel, and notch them into 
the underside of the oak strip on the side planks. They 
will be perfectly flat from the stern half-way up to the bow. 
From this point they can be made in two pieces, as they 
form a V-shape, and they should overlap each other at the 
keel plank. Then bend the J^-inch cedar bottom-boards 
lengthwise of the boat over the floors, using brass screws 
1^4 i ncn No. 10 to fasten them, just setting the heads in 
flush. The deck is A shaped and built just like a house's 
roof, covered with muslin, and painted. The edges, where 
the canvas laps over, are covered with a half-round oak 
molding. 

Placing the Engine 

To get speed, place the engine well aft — run its shaft 
forward to a gear (1^2 to 1). This, with an engine that 
makes about 800 revolutions, will turn the propeller 12 op 

290 







SANDBURR II. BEST RACING TYPE OF I9II 




GUNFIRE, JR." A MONOPLANE 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



revolutions a minute. The propeller-shaft comes aft from 
a metal gear-box, and the gear should run in oil at a very- 
easy angle. The shaft should go out through the keel- 
plank through one of those metal ball-and-socket- joint 
style of stuffing-boxes aft to the propeller. The size of the 
propeller and its pitch will depend on the power of the en- 
gine. The engine-makers will tell you what pitch of wheel 
to use to give the best results with their engine. 

The strut which steadies the shaft should be aft of the 
propeller, since anything in front of it breaks the water at 
high speed so that the propeller sucks in air and "cavi- 
tates," as they call it, which means "making a hole." This 
cavitation is one of the most difficult things to overcome in 
high-speed boats. The propeller kicks the water away 
from under the hull so fast, while the boat in front of the 
propeller prevents the continuous flow of water, that air 
is sucked down instead of water. This air spoils the push 
of the propeller, which needs solid water to work in. 



The Rudder 

Make the rudder out of metal, and don't be afraid to 
make it strong. The strain on it is terrific. Sandburr 
II, a little 20-footer from Atlantic City, was the most suc- 
cessful planer of 1910. She was nothing but a skip- jack 
with a 60-horse-power Emerson motor installed well aft, 
the shaft running forward to gears that increased the 
revolutions of the propeller shaft from 900 turns of the 
engine to 1800 at the propeller. 

The Bug, another diminutive hydro which made quite a 

292 



THE HYDROPLANE 



sensation by defeating the big 185-foot steam yacht Helenita 
in a match race from Huntington to New London, is only 
16 feet long with a 60-horse-power engine. Her propeller- 
shaft also runs forward, and is geared so as to increase the 
speed of the propeller- shaft. Instead of gear-wheels boxed 
in a metal case and running in oil, as Sandburr IFs do, 
her gear-wheels are geared by a sprocket chain kept well 
covered with graphite, just as a bicycle-chain is fitted, only, 
of course, the chain is much heavier and stronger. 

The Bug is a stumpy little skip- jack with two metal 
plates forming planes, the plates being corrugated like the 
metal on a scrubbing-board such as a washerwoman uses. 
A great many of these little flyers have been built of late. 




A. Monoplane — bottom all one plane. B. Biplane — bottom in two planes with one 
jog on step. C. Two-step Hydroplane. D. " Multi-step " Hydroplane. 

293 



Chapter XXVI 

SIGN-BOARDS AND LAMP-POSTS OF THE WATER 

THERE are many who do not know the difference be- 
tween a can-buoy and a nun-buoy, nor do they realize 
that every buoy has a specific meaning and value for men 
who follow the sea. On the sea-coast there are many 
places too shallow for a boat of any size, but there are deep 
channels which are marked out by the government with 
buoys like a row of lamp-posts along a street. Sea-cap- 
tains, familiar with these buoys, can tell what each one 
means just as people on shore can tell a drug-store at night 
by the colored lights, and a police station by its green lights. 

The Arrangement of Buoys 

Buoys are laid out according to a regular rule. A boat 
coming in from sea should have all the red buoys on the 
right side of the boat, and all the black buoys on the left. 
What confuses most amateur sailors is that they generally 
start from the land and so imagine the buoys are laid out 
for the guidance of boats going out rather than for those 
coming in. This is not the case. Take an important water- 
way like New York harbor for instance. The first real 
channel mark to be seen is a light -ship. There is one at 

294 






SIGN-BOARDS AND LAMP-POSTS 

the outer end of Gedney's Channel, and one off the end of 
the vSandy Hook Channel. Gedney's Channel is the main 
steamship channel now since it has been dredged deeper. 
This channel is marked by big iron can-buoys lighted by 
acetylene lights at night. Those that are tapered on top 
are called nun-buoys, and have even numbers, 2, 4, 6, 8, 
etc. They are in a row along the right-hand side of the 
channel. The cylindrical buoys are shaped just like a tin 
can, are called can-buoys, and have odd numbers, such as 
x > 3> 5> 7> 9> e tc. They are in a row on the left-hand side, 
so that on a dark day — even if the ship's captain cannot 
see the color of the buoys, as is often the case when they 
stand out like black silhouettes against a setting sun — he 
can tell, by the shape of the cans, which are to be passed 
on the right-hand side, or starboard side, of his ship, and 
which on the left-hand side, or port side. All the buoys are 
numbered beginning out at sea with number 1 . Where the 
main channel branches off into secondary channels, spar- 
buoys are used. These are huge round sticks as large as 
telegraph-poles, with only ten or fifteen feet sticking up 
out of water. They look small until one gets close to them. 
These are painted red and black, and are numbered. 

Nun, can, and spar buoys are like lamp-posts. The nun- 
buoys are like lamp-posts on the wide, important avenues; 
the can-buoys are the lamp-posts of less important avenues, 
and the spar-buoys the lamp-posts on common, every-day 
streets. That is the way they are graded. 

But there are many other buoys which all mean some- 
thing to one acquainted with the customs of the sea. If 
you were going down-town and saw a red flag in the middle 

295 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

of the street you would know there was some sort of danger 
to look out for. A buoy painted with red and black stripes 
running horizontally around the buoy shows that there is 
a rock or some other obstruction under water, and that 
you are to keep away from it and pass either side of it. A 
spar-buoy painted with vertical stripes of white and black 
means just the opposite. It means that there is danger, 
and the only way to avoid it is to go close to that buoy. 
There may be shoal water a little way from the buoy 
on either side. The buoy marks the middle of the chan- 
nel. 

Bell-buoys and whistling-buoys are generally located at 
important turning-points in channels. The bell has several 
clappers which clang as the buoy moves in the waves, while 
whistling - buoys give a mournful sort of wail or a deep 
grunt as the air is blown through the whistle by the rising 
and falling of the buoy in the waves. The latter are nick- 
named "grunter" buoys, since they grunt more than they 
whistle. These buoys are placed out at sea to enable 
sailors to locate the beginning of a channel, or on the outer 
end of reefs that extend well out from shore, or over sunken 
rocks. 

Gas-buoys are often placed in exposed positions where 
a lighthouse could not be kept, or where the expense of 
maintaining a lightship is not warranted. These buoys 
burn acetylene or compressed gas, and are charged to last 
for months. Most of them burn night and day, though the 
government is now perfecting and using in some places 
lights which are automatically shut off at daybreak, and 
are lighted up at night or on very dark days. 

296 





SIGN-BOARDS AND LAMP-POSTS OF THE WATER 



20 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Lightships and Beacons 

In very dangerous localities, such as Nantucket Shoals, 
lightships are anchored to show the deep-water channels 
across a shallow stretch of water. On headlands and 
islands lighthouses serve to show a sailor what land it is 
by a system of flashes at different intervals, by a steady 
white light, or by alternate red and white flashes. In some 
localities the light is made to show white over the deep 
water, and a red sector throws a red light over the shallow 
part. As long as the sailor can see a white light he knows 
he is out of danger. When he sees the light red he knows 
that he must avoid danger by keeping over farther until 
the light shows white again. 

In some places where buoys cannot be used a big, round 
ball is set on an iron pole (a ''perch and ball" in sailor's 
language), and this is painted red or black according to 
the side on which it is to be passed. Sometimes a cone, 
or a square box made of slats of iron and wood, is placed on 
the top of the pole. 

In going up rivers one finds beacons built up on tripods 
of wood painted red or black, on which at night lanterns 
are hung. Where there is much ice these are sometimes 
made of stone or built like a plow to rip the ice as it comes 
drifting against it. 

On small rivers it is customary to use range marks of 
various kinds on the shore. Sometimes these are diamond- 
shaped frames of white-painted boards set up on posts so 
that one shows up behind the other, and directly over it, 
when you are in the channel. If they are not directly in 

298 



SIGN-BOARDS AND LAMP-POSTS 

line it is certain that one is out of the center of the channel 
and likely to run aground. Some of these frames have a 
black center like a bull's-eye in a target to make it easier 
to distinguish them from surrounding objects. At night 
lanterns are shown on these range marks. In some of the 
shallow bays one will see small cedar-trees lashed to the 
top of poles which have been thrust into the mud. This is 
the way that bay-men mark out channels where the gov- 
ernment does not provide buoys. In many localities, 
where a small boat is likely to go, local boatmen set up 
empty kegs or cans on iron rods driven into the rocks which 
are to be avoided. A novice may be confused by the 
oyster-stakes, shad-poles, and other things used by local 
fishermen to mark out their oyster-beds, or to hold their 
shad-nets; but one will generally see so many around he 
will know that they are the property of fishermen, and not 
intended as a mark for navigating. In large harbors there 
is sometimes a large white spar-buoy with a little black 
anchor painted upon it. That is to show how far up vessels 
can anchor without obstructing river navigation or oc- 
cupying too much of the bay. 

The character of the range marks may vary in different 
localities throughout the country, but by learning what 
they mean the novice will soon be able to look out for them, 
and to sail his boat accordinglv without running on a rock 
or into the mud. 



Chapter XXVII 

RULES OF THE ROAD 

IF there is only one boat on the water it has everything 
its own way. Suppose another boat is put afloat. As these 
two sail about there will come a time when they will meet; 
then there is a question of how they will pass each other. 
On land, in the United States, we keep to the right. On the 
water the same rule holds, and if all would observe this 
rule there would be no collisions. 

If you are sailing at night certain lights show bow other 
boats are going. On the right hand or starboard side of 
your launch, as you stand looking forward, you should have 
a green lantern hooked on the outside of the coaming, and 
on the left or port-hand side a red lantern. These are the 
colors by which another boat can distinguish the course of 
your boat. Besides these two, which are called the side- 
lights, and differ from ordinary lanterns in that the glass 
allows the light to shine only ahead and to the side, boats 
are supposed to carry a white light forward, on the deck 
or on a low flag-pole, which shines all around the forward 
half of a circle, and another at the stern. This stern-light 
should show on all sides. By studying this arrangement of 
lights you will see that it is possible to determine how any 
boat is heading, and you can lay your course accordingly. 

300 



RULES OP THE ROAD 



If you are overtaking another boat you can see the white 
stern light. If you are coming at right angles you can see 
the low white light forward, a red or a green side-light about 
amidships, and the high white stern-light. If you are com- 
ing head on at another boat you can see all the four lights, 
the two white lights being in a line one above the other. 
When they shift so that one is not directly below the other 
you can understand which way it has turned by remember- 
ing that the lower of the two white lights is the one on the bow. 
To enable the beginner better to remember how he should 
turn out when meeting another boat the rules have been put 
into verse as follows: 

Two Boats Meeting End On, or Nearly End On 

Meeting steamers do not dread 
When you see three lights ahead! 
Port your helm and show your red. 

The tiller is always considered the helm. Your steering- 
wheel may be rigged so that the wheel turns either way. 
To port your helm means to turn it in such a way that the 
tiller is pulled over to the port or left-hand side, as you stand 
looking forward in the boat. The boat, of course, turns out 
the opposite way, to the right or starboard. 

Two Boats Passing 

Green to green, or red to red, 
Perfect safety — go ahead. 

Which means, if you see a green light on your right-hand side 
— the side your green light is on — that the other boat is 

301 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



passing well clear of 3^ou, and red to red, of course, the same 
way on the left. 

Two Boats Crossing 

This is the real position of danger. The boat that has 
the other on her own starboard (or right-hand side) must 
keep out of the way of the other. 

If to starboard red appear, 
'Tis your duty to keep clear; 
Act as judgment says is proper — 
Port or starboard, back or stop her; 
But when on your port is seen 
A steamer with a light of green, 
There's not so much for you to do — 
The green light must keep clear of you. 

A Good Lookout 

All ships must keep a good lookout, and stop or go astern, 
if necessary. 

Both in safety and in doubt 
Always keep a good lookout; 
Should there not be room to turn, 
Stop your boat and go astern. 

In the daytime steamers and motor-boats are supposed 
to show how they are about to steer by blowing a whistle. 
At all times power-boats must keep clear of sailing-boats. 
The steamer which blows first tells how it will pass you, and 
you should repeat the signal. 

One blast means : I am directing my course to starboard. 
That is, she is turning out to her right. 

302 



RULES OF THE ROAD 



Two blasts mean: I am directing my course to port. She 
is turning out to her left. 

Three blasts mean: My engines are full -speed astern. 

If an approaching boat blows one blast, never answer with 
two; that is what is called "cross signal," and is liable to 
cause collision. If you cannot turn out as the approaching 
steamer has signaled, or if you do not understand the sig- 
nal, four short blasts of the whistle will explain. This is 
the danger signal, and both boats should stop until new 
signals are given and returned on each side. 

If you are caught out in a fog where unseen boats are 
around, you blow a blast of about four to six seconds' dura- 
tion at frequent intervals on the whistle, siren, or fog-horn. 
It is not safe to run at full speed in foggy weather, and a 
good lookout for other boats should be kept. If there are 
sail-boats around in the fog, you can tell which way they 
are going, because they blow different signals according to 
their tacks. If they are on the starboard tack, that is, if 
their right-hand side is toward the wind, they blow one 
blast at about a minute's interval; if on the port tack, or 
the left-hand side is toward the wind, they blow two 
short blasts; if they are running before the wind and 
have the wind blowing on their sterns they blow three 
blasts. 

Thus there is a regular language of the sea which sailors 
understand, as you will if you note these hints and gain a 
little experience. From this it will be seen that a boat, 
even a small boat, should be equipped with the proper lights 
and a horn. The laws vary in different States, usually re- 
quiring life-preservers and other features. But even if you 

303 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

are doing only harbor cruising, you should have a horn, in 
the absence of a regular power whistle. And life-preservers 
are never out of place. It will be well to acquaint yourseli 
exactly with the requirements of the law, and also to en 
on the side of safety. 






Part VI 
CANOES AND CANOEING 



Chapter XXVIII 

HOW TO BUILD A CANVAS CANOE 

SELECT some situation where, if the canoe is built in 
the open air, it can be removed to shelter in case of 
rain. Procure two strips of pine, 12^ feet long and 2 
inches by Y\ inch; a bunch of pine strips, i}i by j4 inch 
(which should be in length about 13 feet) ; and one piece 
of spruce 12 feet long and 2 inches by i}i inches, which is the 
keel proper. 

First saw your mid-section out of pine (Fig. 1), and 
make your stem and stern-post join the keel (Fig. 2). Nail 
on the two sections at each end of the cockpit. Now 
put on the two sheer planks (the strips 2 inches by $4 
inch), and bend from the inside the ribs (barrel hoops). 
There should be six inches space between ribs; clinch on 
with galvanized wrought-iron nails the lighter pine strips, 
which act as planking. The space between them should 
be four inches. This will bring all your planking on the 
outside of the ribs. Be sure to have the protruding lines 
(after the canvas is put on) run fore and aft, and do not for- 
get that the planking is brought down to a fine point at the 
stem and stern-post and is securely clinched (Fig. 3 shows 
the cross sections). 

307 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Put in your deck beams at each end of the cockpit — they 
are i inch square (spruce) — and on them lay the cockpit comb- 
ing of 2 -inch by %-inch pine, putting in braces of triangular- 
shaped light pine, the same material as combing, having 



xmrn inui i ri rTTTW 




DECK AND SIDE 




Fig. t 



THE STEM 

Fig. 2 




< ) 

CROSS SECTIONS 

Fig. 3 




THE RUDDER 



Fig. 5 



each touch the rib, and nail securely. Make from pine one 
board to receive the foremast, with mast-hole (it should be 
7 inches wide by ^ thick) fit flush with the gunwale strips. 
Aft of the cockpit fix a similar board, and make the mast- 

308 



HOW TO BUILD A CANVAS CANOE 

holes exactly alike, so that in case of a hard blow you can 
shift the smaller sail forward. 

The mast steps go underneath the mast-hole, and are 
fastened securely to the keel. After all the ribs are 
securely fastened turn your boat bottom upward and 
lay on the canvas. Buy only a medium - weight sail 
duck; second-hand will do, provided it is firm; in fact, 
weather-beaten canvas is preferable, as it has a smoother 
and more pliable surface. To insure its setting firmly 
and smoothly four gores should be made along the upper 
edge on each side and firmly sewed from the inside (do 
not cut, but lap over the canvas). Sponge the canvas 
off on both sides with water, and in a damp state tack it on 
along the gunwale, letting the stem and stern-post protrude 
half an inch. Don't be afraid to put the galvanized tacks 
too near together, for if you do not use plenty of tacks there 






Fig. 4 



is considerable risk of a leak. Now turn your boat right side 
up, and when the canvas is perfectly dry it will tighten and 
set with a firm surface. 

It is a great help to have the canoe in the sun when dry- 

3°9 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

ing. Before tacking on your deck canvas, give the inside 
and the outside of the hull and canvas a liberal coat of the 
following: Three-quarters boiled oil to one-quarter raw oil, 
with some patent drier. This compound acts as a filler 
for the canvas and insures it being water-tight. When 
you are sure it is perfectly dry apply two coats of brown 
ready-mixed paint for the inside and two of dark green for 
the outside. Add patent drier to the mixed paint, with a 
little spar varnish for the finishing coat. Before applying 
the last coat of paint add a gunwale - waring strip 
of i -inch spruce, first rounding the outer surface, and 
a spruce keel of i inch by 5/&. The keel and waring 
strips are put on after the canvas has been painted, and 
should receive two coats of filler and one of spar var- 
nish, which give a bright finish and add to the looks of 
your canoe. 

In case you wish only to have a paddling canoe, leave off 
the deck and bulkheads, but retain the two deck beams at 
each end of the cockpit; their edges can be rounded. A 
good spruce paddle, double, seven feet long and jointed, 
can be bought for a few dollars. The sails are made of un- 
bleached muslin, one yard wide. The larger sail measures: 
gaff, 7^ feet; boom, 6 feet; and leach, 6}4. The smaller 
is: hoist, 5 feet; boom, 3^ feet. The foremast is short, 
and is surmounted by a pin of iron surrounded by an iron 
collar. An iron ring is lashed to the gaff, and is hooked 
over the pin on the mast. The jaw is lashed on the boom, 
as is shown in Fig. 4. This is a handy sail, and the only 
drawback is that it cannot be reefed; but then you must 
consider there is no halyard to foul. 

310 






HOW TO BUILD A CANVAS CANOE 

The smaller sail is the regulation leg-of-mutton shape, 
and can be shifted forward in case of a strong wind. When 




Fig. 6 




Fig. 7 



your boat has been completed, lash in the forward and aft 
ends two good-sized varnish-cans with the corks squarely 

311 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

driven home. They are more than handy in case you have 
an upset, for they will sustain the weight of two people. 
They should receive several coats of paint to keep them 
from rusting. Get a plank 9 feet long by 14 inches wide 
and yi inch thick, and shape for bottom board. This 
should receive two coats of the filling -in composition. 
Make and hang the rudder (Fig. 5), and your canoe is 
complete (Figs. 6 and 7). 



Chapter XXIX 

HOW TO USE A CANOE 

BEARING in mind the many varieties of nomenclature 
that we now have in the out-of-door world, such as 
aircraft, icecraft, water-craft, plainscraft, etc., I shall use 
two generic terms— woodcraft and campcraft, or camper- 
craft — because we shall here consider two conditions. 

First, there is the boy living in an organized camp hav- 
ing meals cooked and served for him, with a boathouse, a 
dock for landing, a place for housing his canoe, a cabin, 
bungalow, or tent with a cot or bunk ready to tumble in 
at night — a constant and ready shelter from sudden storm. 

Secondly, there is the boy who makes trips away from 
the main camp where he will choose his own camping-place, 
erect a tent or lean-to, build a fire, cook, and cut wood. 
He must know on these trips how to equip a canoe, how 
to pack and care for it, how to paddle, how to land and 
launch these frail and silent Indian craft, and how to police 
camps. 

If he is going on a hike or tramp he, of course, will be 
fitted out very differently than for a canoe trip. He must 
know how to care for his feet, what sort of shoes and socks 
to wear, and what to take. The arrangement of a blanket 

21 3i3 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

for transportation on a hike is very different from that on 
a canoe trip. 

Canoes and Their Cost 

Canoes are made of various materials. The kind of voy- 
age intended will determine the variety of canoe. Any 
canoe under sixteen feet is a dangerous affair, and should 
be used only by an expert. Its short length does not 
permit of sufficient beam for any stability. 

The canvas-covered canoe is the one most frequently 
used, and with care in landing and a lookout for nails in 
hauling over dams, stumps, and sharp sticks on beaches, 
such a canoe should last for years. The canoes manu- 
factured by the Old Town Canoe Company of Old Town, 
Maine, or by the Racine Boat Company of Racine, Wis- 
consin, are good examples. A sixteen -foot canoe costs 
about $35. The wooden canoe is made of cedar, usually 
with oak ribs and combings. If it is to be used as a sailing 
canoe it is generally decked over, having a small cockpit. 
This naturally increases its safety in rough water. These 
canoes cost from $65 to $150, according to nickel fittings. 

In the Canadian rivers, lakes, and some parts of Maine, 
where a few Indians live, there will still appear the frail, 
graceful, birch-bark canoe. They are light and easy to 
paddle when not going against the wind. I have pur- 
chased an eighteen-foot canoe for $15 and sold it at $10 
when I came out of the woods. 

A birch-bark canoe is easily injured, and the seams need 
attention every night on landing if the paddling is done in 
a river where sandy shallows or rocks scrape the bottom. 

3i4 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Repairing a Canoe 

To mend a tear or rip in a canvas or bark canoe, or 
tighten up the seams, there is a gumlike substance that 
can be purchased at any outfitter's which when heated forms 
a waxlike covering over the opening which is watertight. 
The Indians melt a little pitch and rosin in an iron pot and 
smear it on with a stick. I have camped with Indians who 
carry a small pot full for that purpose tucked up in the bow 
of the canoe. Adhesive tape will also mend a canoe, and 
surgeon's plaster will answer this purpose. Beeswax will 
stop leaks. 

How to Paddle 

To paddle a canoe needs a little practice and understand- 
ing of its ways. Never push out from shore and then at- 
tempt to jump in, as you might do in a rowboat. Have 
the canoe afloat beside a rock, if possible, or let the bow 
merely touch the sand; then step lightly in — do not jump 
— and if two are going, the sternman sits or kneels down, 
steadying the canoe by holding to a branch or rock, or, if 
he desires to steady the boat by his paddle, always reverse 
ends, and let the handle bear the weight. The blade is very 
easily cracked by pushing against stones or sand. A 
broken paddle a hundred miles from home may be a severe 
handicap. 

The bowman now steps in and sits down at once, and 
if the sternman has not floated the canoe, he assists him 
in so doing, using the handle of his paddle in pushing 
out. 

316 



HOW TO USE A CANOE 



In loading a canoe always be careful to ballast it "by 
the stern." The heavier man must always paddle stern. 

In paddling, the sternman steers. This is accomplished 
by twisting the paddle, as it is drawn back in the stroke, 
until by a sweeping, circular motion outward the blade is 
parallel to the boat. This is in straightaway paddling to 
keep the boat in a direct path. Of course, in turning the 
canoe's head in another direction the motion is reversed. 
In steering it is very rarely advisable to change the paddle 
from side to side. This marks a novice at once. Two 
canoeists adapt themselves very readily to each other's 
strokes after a short time. If things do not go smoothly 
for the first mile do not be discouraged, for the second one 
is sure to go better. Canoeists drop into a regular stride 
with a sweeping, steady motion, just as a pedestrian does 
in walking. The novice will make the mistake of beginning 
his day by paddling as though his life depended on covering 
a certain distance in a given time. He will soon tire or 
get a very painful shoulder which corresponds to the neuritis, 
with which violin-players become affected at times. Begin 
slowly and paddle comfortably. It is good form to keep 
the arms as straight as can readily be done. This will 
depend somewhat on the length of arms and the position 
of the paddler. At the end of the stroke the upper arm 
should always be straight. In rough w r ater use short f 
snappy strokes, recovering as quickly as possible. Bear in 
mind that a canoe usually upsets while the paddle is out 
of water. The bad name that canoes have as to "tippi- 
ness" is undeserved if any sort of care and judgment is 
exercised in their management. In fifteen years' experi- 

3i7 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

ence with these boats on lakes and rivers of all sizes, as well 
as on the ocean, I have never had a spill, and have seen but 
two. One occurred at a small Maine lake on a perfectly 
calm, still day. A young man was reading in one end of 
the canoe and dropped his book, forgot that he was in a 
canoe, reached suddenly for it, and got a swim. The second 
was more serious. Two young men went fishing in a seven- 
teen-foot canoe on a rough • day and lay broadside to the 
waves. A steamer's wash made a sea that no canoe could 
stand. They swam to within fifty feet of shore, holding to 
the canoe, then released their hold, tried to swim in, and 
one never reached the shore. Had he retained his hold on 
the canoe he would have been saved. It is a good gen- 
eral rule to make, never to abandon a capsized boat or canoe 
until help comes or the feet can touch bottom. A boy can 
retain his hold on a boat almost indefinitely if the water is 
not too cold, while but few boys can swim more than one- 
half mile, particularly if frightened. 

Equipment 

Paddles should be six feet long for a boy five feet and 
eight inches or over in height; and five feet and six inches 
to five feet and eight inches for a boy under that. The 
bowman always has the shorter paddle. They should 
always be varnished, since this makes them shed water bet- 
ter and keep longer. The best ones are spruce or maple. 
Be sure that the wood is seasoned. The Canadian Indians 
use hard wood (oak or ash) paddles as they pole a great deal. 
They are strong but clumsy and heavy. Bird's-eye maple 

'318 



HOW TO USE A CANOE 



makes beautiful paddles, but they are more expensive. 
Double - ended paddles are only for fancy work around a 
boat-club dock, and no real woodsman ever uses one. The 
cost of paddles is as follows: 

First quality — spruce or maple . . $1.50 
Second quality — spruce or maple . . $1.00 
Bird's-eye maple, selected .... $2.50-13.00 

Back rests and folding-slat canoe chairs are comfortable 
for a passenger, but they are not needed for a trip where 
boys do their own paddling. They cost from $1 to $2.50. 

For sailing a canoe a lateen sail is used with lee boards 
over the side. The outfit would cost approximately: 

Mast and step $1.50 

Lee boards . 6.00 

Sail (50 feet area) 8.50 

$16. 00 

Sponson canoes have air chambers along both sides, 
making it impossible to sink, and difficult to capsize. They 
will support three adults sitting on the rail without cap- 
sizing. 

They are, however, not so easy to paddle, and much heavier. 



Loading 

Put your axe, fire-irons, collapsible stove, and other heavy 
articles in the middle of the canoe. They keep the ballast, 
and act as stringers on which to place weight. Roll or fold 
the tent as tightly as strength can do it; lay it lengthwise 

3 X 9 



HOW TO USE A CANOE 



fore and aft. Put your cooking dishes in a small box, and slip 
it under the seat in the bow. This will keep them together 
and not get smut all over the other things, including your fine 
cedar flooring. The best thing that I have ever found for 
carrying dishes, knives, forks, spoons, is a tin cake -box. 
These boxes can be purchased in any department store 
for at least twenty -five cents, and are watertight, com- 
pact, convenient, and make excellent receptacles. The 
square kind about i J feet long are best. In such a box also 
put such odds and ends as mustard, pepper and salt, bread, 
crackers, cheese, and any food that water or sun will spoil. 
The lid will shut tightly and has a clasp. Put it under your 
stern seat. 

Reserve the small 6 or 7 inch decked-over places in the 
bow and stern for the sweater, coat, or shirt. This will keep 
them dry until you need them. The feet will often tire in an 
all-day grind, and paddling in stocking-feet is often a relief. 

Rough Water 

In rough water keep the paddle moving in the water as 
much as possible, and minimize the amount of time that 
it is in the air. Keep the boat ends on to the waves either 
going to windward or running before them. In whirlpools 
and rapids let the bowman paddle and the sternman keep 
his paddle in the water to act as a rudder, ready at any 
moment to swing to avoid a rock or hidden danger. In 
going up a rapid rocky stream use a pole and push up; do 
not attempt to paddle. If a steamer passes near, even on 
a still day, point the canoe's nose toward the waves raised. 

321 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

A well-ballasted canoe is always safer than one lightly loaded, 
and is more buoyant the lower the centre of gravity is 
placed. In other words, a canoe with its occupant sitting 
or kneeling in the bottom is much safer than one with the 
crew sitting on the seats or thwarts. If alone, put a weight 
in the bow and paddle from the centre of the canoe. With 
a man and a sack or two of flour and camp duffle resting in 
the middle, besides the paddlers in either end of a seventeen- 
foot canoe, an almost unbelievable amount of heavy sea 
will be weathered. I have seen Big Thunder, chief of the 
Old Town Indians, in a birch-bark canoe outside Mt. Desert 
Island in a blow riding the waves like a sea-gull. So be 
light of foot, steady of hand, strong of arm, and wary in 
judgment in your canoe. It will carry you silently and 
swiftly "along the listening woodland" — the very embodi- 
ment of its savage maker. 



Part VII 
ROWING 



Chapter XXX 

A BOYS' BOAT CLUB 

IF a boy of fourteen, or even of a younger age, should come 
to me and ask what form of exercise he should pursue in 
order to become strong and healthy, I should certainly say, 
take up rowing. Then if he were to ask me how he should 
learn to row, I should advise h'm to join a boat club. Then 
if he were to say that he was too young to join a boat club, 
I should tell him to form a boat club of boys. 

But how is this to be done ? It is to answer that question 
that this chapter is written. 

I have been rowing ever since I was thirteen years old. 
When I went to college (and I presume most of my boy 
readers hope to go to college some day), I found that the 
knowledge of rowing that I had acquired enabled me to 
row in my freshman crew as captain and stroke, and in 
two university crews, in one of which I was stroke. 

There are two kinds of boys whom I hope this chapter 
will reach: First, boys who go to a preparatory school 
where there are baseball clubs, foot-ball clubs, and pos- 
sibly rowing clubs. Most of these boys will probably go 
to college. Second, boys who do not attend such a school, 
but go to public or private schools, and feel the need of 
some sort of organized work in athletics. If my readers 

325 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

belong to the former class, I may be able to tell them how 
they can improve their club. If they belong to the latter 
class, I hope to be able to tell them how to form a boat 
club, build a boat-house, buy a boat, choose their officers, 
and learn to row. 

Now let me say one word about who should be asked 
to join this club. Don't reject a boy because he is thin 
and weakly. Before he has been long in training he may 
become one of the best boys at the oars the club has. 
In my next chapter, on training and the manner of 
rowing, I will show you how this can be accomplished. 
A case occurs to me that' I will here speak of. Mr. Met- 
calfe was, some years ago, one of the foremost members 
of the Columbia College crew. When he was in his fresh- 
man year, he was thin, lank, and weak, and the captain 
hesitated about letting him row. But by constant work at 
the oars, and by careful observance of the rules of training, 
he was one of the best men on the university crew that I 
coached, and most of his strength came from following the 
rules I propose to give to you. 

Perhaps I had better confine myself in this chapter to 
the boat-house and boat, and tell you what kind of boys 
you should choose, and how they should be governed and 
trained in another chapter. 

The Boat-house 

First you must have a boat-house. This is necessary. 
You cannot keep your boat in the water overnight, and 
you cannot store away your oars and rudders and do your 
training unless you have a boat-house. The plan that 

326 



Si 




BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

accompanies this chapter will show you what kind of a 
boat-house you should build, how it should be arranged, 
and what sort of a boat you should row in. 

The boat-house should be built close to the water's edge, 
and from the platform that extends from the front of the 
house there should be an incline leading to a float. 
Possibly you may be able to build the float yourselves 
by making a raft of logs on the water, each log fastened 
to the other, and the top covered with a flooring of planks. 
The boat-house shown in the plan (Fig. i) is exactly the 
right size to accommodate your boat or boats. You will 
see that the artist has made in his picture a boat rack, 
with room on it for a number of boats, for all boat clubs as 
they grow in size add to their number of boats. The rack 
should be built at the beginning, as it costs little, and when 
you buy gigs and shells, as you probably will if your club 
grows, it will be a necessity. 

The barge also has two cradles, which are shown in this 
picture. The barge is a delicate boat, and without these 
cradles it would not last very long. It should never be 
allowed to rest on anything but the water and the canvas 
bottoms of these cradles. More barges have been ruined 
by the neglect of this rule than would equip a dozen such 
clubs as you may form. 

The oar rack is also a necessity, because were an oar 
left on the floor, where it is likely to be stepped on, the 
chances are that you would find your bill for new oars 
a large item of your expenses. The blade of the oar is 
very delicately made, and a careless footstep might ruin 
its usefulness. 

328 






A BOYS' BOAT CLUB 



The boat-house should be kept clean and in ship-shape. 
This is very important, as your boat and oars and all the 
furnishings of the boat and house will last much longer if 
they are attended to properly. 

The house will cost you almost whatever you may care 
to spend. In such a matter it is easy to make your house 
cost double the original amount set aside for the purpose, 
by the addition of little fixtures that will add to its beauty, 
but not particularly to its utility. Such a house as I have 
planned can be built in New York for from five hundred to 
eight hundred dollars. In the country, or in smaller cities, 
where both lumber and work are cheaper, it can be built for 
much less money. A friend of mine once built a house of 
this size on Lake Champlain for one hundred dollars, and 
he hired a carpenter to do all the work, too. But this was 
a number of years ago, and the cost of wages and material 
has increased greatly. 

Of course you can save some expense by painting the 
house yourselves. The paint would not cost much, and 
any intelligent boy can do the work with little practice. 

The Boat 

Now as to the boat. You should buy a good boat from 
a good builder. The first boat you buy should be either 
a six-oared or a four-oared barge. A six-oared barge is 
the most useful boat for a boys' club. The best way to 
get such a boat is to buy it from a recognized dealer, and 
secure the standard size. It should be forty-five feet in 
length, and it will cost you from three hundred to three 

22 329 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

hundred and fifty dollars. These figures should include 
everything — rowlocks, oars, sliding seat, and stationary 
seat. 

It is extremely necessary that you should have both 
stationary and sliding seats. When you begin your practice, 
you must use the stationary seats altogether. After I had 
spent several months rowing on a sliding seat, I was forced 
to unlearn all I had learned, because I had not mastered 
the first principles of the art on a stationary seat. I have 
seen many college men who started in on sliding seats, and 
were afterward obliged to go back and begin over again on 
stationary seats. When I come to tell you what kind of 
a stroke you should row, you will see that there is an ex- 
cellent reason for this piece of advice. 

If you do not think that you can afford at first to have 
a new boat built for you, you can easily buy a second- 
hand one from an established boat club in any large city. 
There are always several of such craft in the market. 

One word more. Do not think that because you are 
boys you should have a small boat and small oars. Buy 
both of the regulation size. 



Chapter XXXI 

HOW TO TRAIN A BOYS' BOAT CLUB 
Organization 

IN my previous chapter I gave you a few simple sugges- 
tions as to your boat-house and boat. Now I will tell 
you how to select your members, organize your club, choose 
your officers, and train your crew in the best way to de- 
velop your muscles, broaden your chests, and improve 
your general health. A boy who does plenty of rowing 
at school and in college, provided he rows in the proper 
manner, stores up a reserve fund of vitality and strength 
that will be of great use to him all through his life. 

Your club should be thoroughly organized before any 
work is done. The best way to do this is to take the con- 
stitution and by-laws of any first-class rowing club, and 
model one after that. Here is the preamble of one of the 
best clubs in New York City, and you could not do better 
than adopt it as it is without a change: 

''Whereas, The intents and purposes of this club are to promote phys- 
ical culture, and more especially to encourage the manly art and exercise 
of rowing, and believing that such object can be attained only by active 
co-operation and enforcement of regular order, be it therefore 

'Resolved, That we, the undersigned, do hereby pledge ourselves to 
support and be governed by the following constitution and bi'-laws, en- 
dorsing the same by our individual signatures." 

331 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



A list of the officers and the definition of their duties 
can be obtained from any rowing club, and I need not 
mention them in detail in this article, but I want to say a 
few words to you about your selection of a captain. He 
should not be too hastily elected; popularity should not 
be his sole qualification. If possible, he should be the most 
conscientious, hard-working, level-headed, and determined 
boy in the club. He should be able to govern his fellow- 
members, and enforce the constitution and by-laws. He 
may not know anything about rowing, but if he has the 
above characteristics he will soon learn. Many crews have 
captains who are popular but careless. It must be under- 
stood at the outset that he has entire control, and he should 
allow no one to dictate to him in the boat or on the shore. I 
know of a university crew that was ruined by two or three 
"kickers" and fault-finders. Such members discourage the 
other boys, do much harm, and positively no good. They 
either should be quieted or turned out of the club. 

Training 

Now as to the training. If possible, the first work the 
club does should begin during the winter months, and in 
a gymnasium. This is preparatory work, and will save 
many disappointments when the rowing months come. 
If you have no gymnasium in your neighborhood, you 
could rent a room, and fit it up with some of the regular 
gymnasium fixtures, the most important of which are pul- 
ley weights. Excellent directions for their use accompany 
all such appliances as are of standard make. Be sure to 

332 



HOW TO TRAIN A BOYS* BO AT CLUB 

have your room well ventilated, as plenty of fresh air is of 
the utmost importance during in-door exercise. In your 
gymnasium work do not make the mistake that many 
would-be oarsmen make, of developing only those muscles 
that they think they will require in rowing, but develop 
the whole body symmetrically, strengthening all muscles 
alike, and not one at the expense of another. Some boys 
are weak in certain sets of muscles, or have some physical 
defects, such as hollow chests. Of course in these cases 
special attention should be paid to strengthening these 
weaknesses. But even then keep in mind the great im- 
portance of uniform muscular exercise. 

Among your fixtures you should have a stationary seat four 
or five inches above the floor. A ' ' stretcher ' ' should be placed 
a short distance away from this — a little less than the 
average length of a boy's legs — and on this " stretcher" 
two toe straps, such as are used on old-fashioned skates, 
should be fastened. Then each boy should take his turn 
on the seat, placing his toes in the straps, and gently sway 
his body backward and forward, just as an oarsman swings 
his body in a racing boat. This exercise is very valuable 
in imparting the proper way of holding the back in the boat. 
The swing should be made entirely from the hips, bending 
the back as little as possible. A boy who is very stiff 
at the hips will, if this exercise is practised patiently, be 
able in a short time to get his "reach" in the proper way. 
The "reach," I may explain, is the movement made when 
the body is swung forward from the hips and the arms are 
extended just before dipping the oar into the water. 

In some college gymnasiums there are rowing tanks, in which 

333 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

the boat is stationary, but there is room on both sides of it for 
the oars to work. In such a tank the crew practise during 
the winter months.* But for all practical purposes at first, 
the stationary seat and stretcher will be all that is necessary. 

Running is another exercise of great value, and it should 
be out-of-doors when the weather permits. Start with very 
short distances and at an easy gait, and work up gradually 
until you can run a mile or two. This exercise should be 
stopped when you begin to row; but when such days come 
that you are unable to row, you should take a run. The 
more out-of-door work of any kind a boy does, the stronger 
he will grow. After such violent exercise take a shower- 
bath, or, if you cannot do that, take a bucket of cold water 
and a sponge and give yourself a thorough dousing, after 
which have your body rubbed with a rough towel until it 
glows. 

The old idea of a very limited diet for boys or men in 
training has long been exploded, and each year the college 
crews are given a more liberal bill of fare. The thinner a 
boy is, the greater variety of food he should have. Growing 
boys especially should have a great variety, and should only 
eschew rich pastry and other indigestible articles. When 
you are in training, you should eat nothing between meals, 
and have the meals at regular intervals. Do not get into 
the coffee or tea habit. For two weeks before a race the 
bill of fare should be more carefully considered, and noth- 
ing but plain and wholesome food should be eaten. Accus- 
tom yourself to get along without ice-water. It does much 

*Most of the colleges have discarded the tanks and substituted rowing 
machines. 

334 



HOW TO TRAIN A BOYS' BOAT CLUB 

harm even to those who do not row. Do not gulp the water, 
but sip it, and you will find that it quenches your thirst 
much more quickly. If you have any aspirations to be- 
come oarsmen, you might as well give them up if you use 
alcohol or tobacco in any form. A cigarette will do your 
lungs incalculable injury. 



Chapter XXXII 

HOW TO ROW 

IN this chapter I will tell you how to utilize some of the 
information I have given in my former chapters in a 
practical way in your boat. We will suppose that you 
are ready to take your first row. Before you do this, you 
must select your " stroke" oarsman, who pulls the last oar 
in the stern of the boat, and sits facing the coxswain. The 
stroke oar should be the most experienced oarsman in the 
club, as he sets the stroke for all the other boys to follow. 
If he rows fast, so must they; if he slows up, they must slow 
up too. You should arrange where the other boys are to sit, 
and you should place the heaviest boys in the middle of the 
boat. The coxswain should be the lightest boy you can 
trust to handle the rudder ropes and steer the boat. 

Now you are ready to put the boat in the water. Lift 
it carefully out of its cradles, carry it to the end of the 
float, and place it in the water. Then put the oars in the 
rowlocks. When you step in the boat, be careful to step 
on the keelson; never step on the bottom of your barge. 
As soon as the boat is shoved off, the coxswain^ gives the 
orders under direction of the captain. The first order the 
captain gives is somewhat in the following manner: "Go 
ahead!" he says. Then the coxswain calls out, "Ready, 

33 6 



HOW TO ROW 



all!" and the crew place their oars in the water preparatory 
to beginning a stroke. "Row!" calls the coxswain, and the 
stroke is begun. When the captain wants the boys to stop 
rowing, he directs the coxswain, who gives the order, "Way, 
all!" When he wants the boat stopped, he orders, "Hold, 
all!" and the crew put their oars deep into the water, and 
hold them in that position until the boat comes to a stand- 
still. When he wants the boat turned to the "port," for 
instance, the order is: "Port, hold! Starboard, pull!" and 
the barge moves in the desired direction. When he wants 
the boat to go backward, the proper order is, "Stern, all!" 
and the crew back water with their oars. 

The Stroke 

In describing a stroke which you should use, I will not 
give the exact stroke of any college, but such a one as will 
enable you to easily catch the stroke of the college you may 
attend from the foundation you have acquired from my 
directions. While you are learning the principles of the 
stroke, which will take you a week or longer, the whole 
crew should not row together, though you should all sit 
in the boat. You should row in pairs, such as "bow" and 
"two," who pulls an oar on the opposite side of the boat 
from the "bow" oar. For a month at least you should use 
stationary seats. 

Take h id of your oars with a hand's-breadth between 
your hands. Commence by reaching forward toward the 
stern of the boat with both body and arms and putting the 
blade of the oar in the water, being careful to swing for- 

337 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

ward from the hips without bending the middle of the back 
any more than possible. In the swing forward toward the 
stern great care should be taken that the last part of this 
movement should be very slowly and firmly made. The 
back should be fairly straight, and the shoulders should be 
down and back, as is shown in Fig. i, and not up and for- 
ward, as in Fig. 2. 

In dropping the oars into the water, the lower part of 
the blades should be turned slightly toward the bow of the 
boat. They should not be dropped in straight up and 
down. Drop your blades into the water by raising your 
hands when you are at full reach. You are at "full reach" 
when your arms are extended and your body is swung for- 




Fig. 1 Fig. 2 

GOOD FULL REACH BAD FULL REACH 

ward. Be sure that the blade is entirely under water, but 
do not put it down too deep. The upper edge should be cov- 
ered but that is all. Swing back slightly past the perpendi- 
cular, at the same time bringing in the hands until they 
just touch the body. At this point the body should be 
held firmly, as in Fig. 3 , without settling down, as is shown 
in Fig. 4. The commencement of the stroke should be hard, 
and the pull through the water should be strong and firm, 
not jerky. As the hands come in, the elbows should not 

338 



HOW TO ROW 



be spread out, neither should they be very close to the side; 
they should be between the two. When you have brought 
your hands in close to the body, immediately drop them to 
raise the blade from the water, and do not, at first, turn 




Fig. 3 

GOOD FINISH 



Fig* 4 

BAD FINISH 



your hands to "feather" your oar until they are dropped. 
Later you can somewhat merge the two movements. Start 
your hands and your body together as you swing toward 
the stern of the boat, which movement is called the "re- 
cover," but "shoot" your hands away from your body very 
quickly until your arms are straight. The blade should 
always clear the water on the recover by three or four 
inches, and should be kept at a uniform distance from the 
water. When you "feather" your oar, you should chiefly 
use your hand nearest the rowlock, the oar turning a little 
in your other hand In your forward and backward swings 
be sure to keep your body directly over the keel of the boat, 
and do not lean either to one side or the other. 

Sliding Seats 

After you have learned to row this stroke on stationary 
seats, use sliding seats. The points that I have given you 

339 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

above can be used when you row on your sliding seats 
without change. But I want to caution you not to start 
your slides toward the bow of the boat before you begin 
to pull on your oars. Never push your stretcher before 
your oar is under water and you are pulling on it. On 
the recover, the slide, hands, and body should start to- 
gether. During the first part of the recover, the slide 
should move rapidly, and during the last part correspond- 
ingly slowly. You can add to the speed of your boat by 
pushing against the stretcher hard when you are using 
the slide. 

I would advise you to select some experienced person as a 
"coach," who will go with you when you row, and see that 
you follow all of these directions precisely as they are given. 
By that means you will be sooner able to correct your 
faults and perfect your style of rowing. 

When you first begin to row as a crew, you should take 
short rows, gradually increasing the distance and your 
speed. 

When you come in from a row, take a souse bath and a 
brisk rubdown. I want to caution you not to row before 
you have learned to swim; but when you are practising 
hard you should not stay long in the water when you do 
go swimming. 



Chapter XXXIIT 

THE HARVARD-YALE RACE 1 
1852-1885 

THE year 191 2 brings the sixtieth anniversary of the 
first meeting between Harvard and Yale as rivals in 
sport. Their race in 1852 initiated a series of varied 
athletic contests, in which nearly all our better-known col- 
leges have at one time or another taken part. Out of that 
race grew all American college boating. To it must be 
ascribed, indirectly, the credit of the physical develop- 
ment which many graduates trace back to the boating 
of their college days. For Harvard and Yale, by inaugurat- 
ing races and other contests between students from differ- 
ent institutions of learning, furnished a needed stimulus 
to care of the body as well as of the mind, and hastened the 
recognition of physical education as an essential part of the 
college curriculum. If the benefits of college boating were 
limited to the six or eight representative oarsmen, the 
value of boating might well be questioned. But such is 
not the case. The fact that a picked crew is to be sent 
out to do battle against a rival does assuredly help to 
draw hard-reading men from their sedentary life to the 
1 By the courtesy of the Outing Magazine. 
341 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS ■ 

gymnasium and the river. Without these annual races 
boating at Harvard and Yale would languish, and perhaps 
utterly perish. The years which have passed since these 
colleges were first pitted against each other on the water 
has brought a marked improvement in the physical wel- 
fare of the average college student, and in this, as I have 
indicated, the Harvard- Yale race has been no unimpor- 
tant factor. 

As regards equipment and methods, it is more than im- 
probable that any changes which the future may bring will 
be as sweeping as those included in the records of the first 
thirty- three years of these contests. There will be no 
transition comparable to that from the clumsy barge, three 
and a half feet wide, rowed on the gunwale, to the slender 
shell of recent years. There will be no such series of changes 
as were presented by the early scratch-races on Lake Winni- 
piseogee, the turning races at Worcester, with their up- 
roarious accompaniments, the intercollegiate regattas at 
Springfield and Saratoga, culminating in 1875 in the beauti- 
ful spectacle of thirteen six-oared crews ready at the start- 
ing-line, and finally, the eight-oared contests which began 
between Harvard and Yale in 1876, and between Cornell 
and the field in 1895 at Poughkeepsie. The conditions of 
both races have been well tried, and nothing better has been 
found. 

But the experience and general perfection of methods 
represented in the college races of to-day are derived from 
much vain groping in the dark, from beginnings and experi- 
ments which seem laughable enough in the light of our 
present wisdom, and from many costly blunders. Many an 

342 






THE HARVARD-YALE RACE — 1 85 2-1 885 

old oarsman feels even now a dull ache at his heart as he 
remembers how the result of some hard-fought race betrayed 
his faith in a new "rig," a new stroke, or a new system of 
training. There may still be graduates who recall the fifty 
and sixty strokes to the minute, pulled by the men of the early 
days, and they may be inclined to regard the sliding seats 
and slower stroke of to-day as signs of degeneracy. Consule 
Planco, "when Wilbur Bacon pulled stroke of Yale," or, 
"when Harvard sent forth the Crowninshields, Watson, 
the McBurneys, and the Lorings," "then, indeed, there 
was a race of giants upon the earth." Well, the race en- 
dures, and the men who represent the two universities at 
New London, year by year, sustain the traditions of their 
predecessors. No Harvard or Yale graduate will admit 
that his interest in the race has waned. He may care little 
for other victories, except in football, but he never fails to 
watch the wires when the decisive news is expected from 
New London. No one but a Harvard or a Yale man can 
fully understand the force of this feeling. Properly directed 
it is a stimulus to open and honorable emulation. Left 
uncontrolled it has led in the past to recriminations and 
ruptures which, I have faith to believe, have occurred for 
the last time. 

Boating began at both Harvard and Yale about 1844, 
but received little attention from the majority of the stu- 
dents until after the first Harvard- Yale race, in 1852. The 
challenge came from Yale, and was accepted by the Oneida 
Club of Harvard. The date of the race was August 3d, 
and upon August 10th, according to the fashion of those 
leisurely times, the New York Tribune published a report 

343 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

sent by a correspondent at Center Harbor, N. H. This 
account was as follows: 

The students of the Yale and Harvard boat-clubs met each other in 
the depot hall at Concord, where mutual introductions took place, and 
they proceeded together to Weirs. Here the "Lady of the Lake" was 
in waiting to convey them to Center Harbor, where they arrived after a 
delightful trip of an hour and a half, just in time for a splendid dinner at 
the Center House. Some idea of the immense capacity of these boats 
may be gained from the fact that the captain requested the passengers 
not to seat themselves all on one side of the boat. . . . The students have 
free passage in her to any part of the lake; and indeed their whole trip, 
as we understand, was free, the expenses being defrayed principally, we 
understand, by the Boston and Montreal Railroad Company. . . . The 
Yale boats arrived on Monday, which was mostly spent in fishing and 
practising for the regatta on Tuesday. The boats are: From Harvard, 
the Oneida, 38 feet long, 8 oars; from Yale, the Undine, 30 feet long, 
8 oars; the Shawmut, 38 feet long, 8 oars; the Atlanta, 20 feet long, 4 oars. 

There is but one boat-club in existence at Harvard at present, which 
accounts for their sending but one boat. The crew have evidently had con- 
siderable practice — somewhat more than the boats at Yale. The Oneida 
is quite a model for fleetness and beauty. The first regatta was run on 
Tuesday at eleven in the morning. The shore was lined with a numerous 
and excited throng, and the betting ran quite high. At the third blast 
of the bugle, the boats shot forward almost with the speed of race-horses, 
while the band on the shore struck up a lively tune. The sight was per- 
fectly enchanting, scarce a breeze ruffled the water, and the whole crowd 
were anxiously bending their gaze upon the boats, which were flying over 
the water with all the speed which the vigorous and rapid strokes of the 
young oarsmen could produce. Meanwhile, the little parties who were 
out in skiffs were urging on the oarsmen with encouraging shouts as they 
rushed by them. The distance to be run was about a mile and a half, 
to a boat anchored off upon the lake. The Oneida ran the distance in 
seven minutes, the Shawmut being about two lengths behind, while the 
Undine and Atlanta pressed closely after. 

This was what was denominated the scrub-race, being merely a trial 
of the strength of the respective crews and no prize being awarded. 

The grand regatta came off this afternoon at four o'clock. The boats 
(with the exception of the Atlanta, which was not allowed to compete 

344 



THE HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 8 5 2 - 1 88 5 

for the prize on account of its inequality in size and number of oarsmen) 
started at the distance of about two miles from shore and ran directly 
for the wharf. A large boat, with the band on board, was stationed mid- 
way upon the lake and [the boat?] played some very fine airs for the 
benefit of the lookers-on, for it evidently attracted no attention from the 
oarsmen, who were altogether too busily occupied. 

The result of the race was the same with that of the first, the distance 
between the boats being almost exactly the same. 

A fine pair of black-walnut oars, tastefully ornamented with silver, 
was presented to the Oneida, with an appropriate speech, by the Chair- 
man of the Deciding Committee. 

The first move toward an intercollegiate regatta was 
made by Harvard in 1858. Yale, Brown, and Trinity re- 
sponded to her call ; but the drowning of the Yale stroke, Mr. 
George E. Dunham, at Springfield, July 17, 1858, caused the 
abandonment of the race. The first regatta in which more 
than two colleges participated was not rowed until the fol- 
lowing year, and the second and the last general regatta, 
for a period of ten years, was held in i860. The experience 
of the Brown crew was not calculated to encourage other 
entries. Then the war, and certain restrictions imposed 
by the faculties of Harvard and Yale, made the boating 
record a blank until 1864. In 1865 Yale's time, first an- 
nounced as 17m. 42J^s., was afterward, according to the 
Harvard Book, " declared by both judges and referee to be 
a mistake." In this publication the Yale time is given as 
1 8m. 42>^s. The author of Yale Boating claims the 
faster time. In the Citizens' regatta, on the same course, a 
day later, the time of the Yale crew was 19m. 5>^s. In 
1869 Harvard, after sending her four best oarsmen to 
England, won an unexpected victory from Yale at Worcester. 
Two of the Worcester crew afterward took the places of 
23 345 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS : _ 

the men originally selected to meet Oxford. An unfortunate 
foul in 1870 caused an angry and protracted discussion, which 
was taken up by the daily press. This was the last of 
racing at Worcester. The advantage of the landlocked 
Quinsigamond course was its freedom from rough water. 
Its disadvantages were the necessity of a turning race, with 
the chance of fouls at the stake, and comparative inac- 
cessibility. In the opinion of Yale the general sentiment of 
the good people of Worcester was strongly in favor of Har- 
vard. In the opinion of Worcester's sedate citizens, the 
uproar which annually began at the Bay State House, and 
drove sleep from almost the entire city, finally became too 
dear a price to pay for the visits of either Harvard or Yale 
oarsmen and their friends. 

So a new era was inaugurated. Yale positively refused 
to row at Worcester. The New London course was ex- 
amined, and the report was favorable. But in April, 
187 1, Harvard, Brown, Amherst, and Bowdoin organized 
the "Rowing Association of American Colleges," for the 
management of an annual regatta on a three-mile straight- 
away course, and Springfield was selected for the first race. 
Yale neither participated nor consented to Harvard's ac- 
ceptance of her challenge, which named Springfield and the 
intercollegiate regatta as the place and time. Harvard's 
second acceptance came too late, and 187 1 was the only 
year since 1863 when Harvard and Yale failed to meet. 
Harvard's unexpected defeat by the Amherst Agricultural 
crew proved a text for much newspaper moralizing as to 
the superiority of "brawny country boys" over "pam- 
pered city youths," and others of the smaller colleges were 

346 






THE HARVARD-YA LE R ACE — 1 85 2 -1 885 

encouraged to enter the competition. When, in 1872, Har- 
vard was defeated by Amherst and Yale was the last of 
the six crews, the boating-fever broke out at almost every 
college which could possibly equip six oarsmen. Eleven 
crews entered in 1873, the year of the famous " diagonal 
line finish." The flags, first given to Harvard, were after- 
ward recalled, and the race was awarded to Yale. The 
referee's decision is final. But those who care to review 
this curious controversy will find in the Harvard Book an 
explanatory diagram and various proofs and arguments 
which will appear convincing until the reader turns to the 
evidence and the special pleading set forth in Yale Boating. 
The crooked Springfield course presented peculiar diffi- 
culties to both judges and spectators, as is vividly suggested 
by the following account of the race of 1873, written for 
the New York Tribune, by Bret Harte: 

The great race was coming. It came with a faint tumult, increasing along 
the opposite side into the roars of "Rah!" and yells of " Yale! " like the bore 
of the Hoogly River — and then, after straining our eyes to the uttermost, 
a chip, a toothpick, drifted into sight on the broad surface of the river. 
At this remarkably and utterly novel sight we all went into convulsions. 
We were positive it was Harvard. We would wager our very existence 
it was Yale. If there was anything we were certain of it was Amherst; 
and then the toothpick changed into a shadow, and we held our breath; 
and then into a centipede, and our pulses beat violently; and then into 
a mechanical log, and we screamed of course it was Harvard. And then, 
suddenly, without warning on shore, and here at our very feet dashed a 
boat the very realization of the dream of to-day — light, graceful, beauti- 
fully handled, rapidly and palpably shooting ahead of its competition 
on the opposite side. There was no mistake about it this time. Here 
was the magenta color, and a "Rah!" arose from our side that must have 
been heard at Cambridge — and then Yale on the other side, Yale the 
indistinguishable, Yale the unsuspected — won! 

347 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

The dispute of 1873 put a greater strain upon the rela- 
tions of Harvard and Yale. A new race of oarsmen had 
come forward in 1872, headed on the Yale side by Robert J. 
Cook and at Harvard by Richard H. Dana, 3rd. The rivalry 
was intense, and when, at Saratoga, in 1874, Harvard was 
fouled by Yale, there was an outpouring of the spirit at the 
lake and an outbreak of hostilities in the town, in the pres- 
ence of which no one would have dared to predict such har- 
mony as now attends the meeting of Harvard and Yale at 
New London. But the succeeding years brought satis- 
faction to both sides. In '1875 Harvard defeated Yale, 
and in the first of the eight-oared races at Springfield, in 
1876, Yale was easily victorious over Harvard. In the four 
intercollegiate regattas engaged in by both Harvard and 
Yale, Harvard took second place once and third place three 
times, while Yale was sixth in 1872, first in 1873, ninth 
after the foul of 1874, and sixth in 1875. 

The race of 1875 at Saratoga was the first in which the plan 
of rowing in ' 'lanes " marked out by flags was adopted, and in 
consequence there was a total absence of fouls. It may 
be because this race was the first which I had seen that it 
appeared to me an extraordinarily beautiful spectacle; but 
I still think that the sight of thirteen six-oared crews in line 
was sufficient warrant for certain descriptive extravagances. 
The newspapers that year, as at the two preceding regattas, 
devoted pages to detailed accounts of the training, stroke, 
boats, arid even the personal peculiarities of the oarsmen. 
The crowds of summer visitors in the grand-stand and on 
the shore were merely the background for the kaleido- 
scopic ribbons of the intent, excited, uproarious mob which 

348 



THE HARVARD-YALE RACE— 1 85 2 -1 885 

represented thirteen colleges. What bitter memories could 
resist the wild celebration which followed the race? Har- 
vard and Yale joined in congratulating victorious Cornell, 
marched together in a tumultuous procession, and mingled 
in a fraternal embrace. 

But this reconciliation really meant the end of the un- 
wieldy Intercollegiate Rowing Association. Frequent post- 
ponements on account of rough water had shown the un- 
certainty of the Saratoga course, the only one available for 
a race with so many participants. Now that Harvard and 
Yale were able to arrive at a clear understanding, the ad- 
visability of returning to an independent contest was con- 
ceded on both sides. Yale . withdrew from the association, 
and challenged Harvard to a four-mile eight-oared race. 
The challenge was accepted. Harvard alumni decided that 
a crew should be sent once more to an intercollegiate regatta, 
and, as a point of honor, Harvard was represented by a 
six-oared crew in the Saratoga race of 1876, as well as by 
an eight-oar in the contest with Yale at Springfield. Har- 
vard rowed a separate race against Columbia in 1877, but 
the day of general intercollegiate races was ended for both 
universities, and their one distinctive race has remained a 
dual contest, with two exceptions — 1897, when both took 
part in the Poughkeepsie regatta which was won by Cornell, 
and 1898, when Cornell won against Harvard and Yale at 
New London. 

The improvement in the boats used in the Harvard- Yale 
races amounts to a revolution. The first boat owned at 
Harvard was the Oneida, built for a race between two clubs 

349 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

of Boston mechanics, and purchased in 1844 by members 
of the class of 1846. She was a type of all the club-boats 
down to 1855. According to the Harvard Book the Oneida 
was "thirty-seven feet long, lap-streak built, heavy, quite 



^D-iS^- 




THE " ONEIDA," THE FIRST HARVARD RACING-BOAT 

Bought in 1846 and used for thirteen years 
(By the courtesy of the "Outing Magazine.") 

low in the water, with no shear, and with a straight stem. 
Her width was about three feet and a half in the widest 
part, and she tapered gradually toward bow and stern. She 
was floored half-way up to the gunwale with wooden strips, 
and had a hard- wood grating in each end. These gratings 
were kept unpainted and oiled; and, although used by the 
bow-oar sometimes to walk on in using his boat-hook and 
in setting and striking colors, they were the principal vanity 
of the boat. Many a hard day's work have members of 
her crew done in sandpapering and polishing these gratings 
when things were to be made shipshape for some special 
occasion ! The boat had plain, flat, wooden thole-pins fitted 
into the gunwale. Her oars were of white ash, and ranged 
from thirteen feet six inches long in the waist to twelve 
feet at bow and stern. A plain bar of hard wood served 
for stretcher, and each seat had a red-baize-covered cushion. 
The tiller-ropes were stout, covered with canvas, and fin- 
ished at the end with a knot known as a 'Turk's head.' 

35o 



THE HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 85 2-1 88 5 

The captain's gig of a man-of-war will give a very good 
idea of her general fittings." 

Such was the first boat entered by Harvard in a race 
against Yale. The Oneida was used continuously for thir- 
teen years by Harvard students, and tradition has it that 
she was never beaten in a race. The boats entered by Yale 
in the race of 1852, the Halcyon, or Shawmut, and the Un- 
dine, were of a similar pattern. In the race of 1855 the 
Harvard eight-oared barge was slightly outrigged with 
wooden pieces spiked to the gunwale; but the crack Har- 
vard boat was supposed to be the Y. Y., a four-oar from 
St. John, fairly outrigged and furnished with oars of spruce 
instead of ash. The Yale boats, spoken of as much superior, 
had "bent wooden outriggers, braced like those of a wherry, 
running from the bottom of the boat across the gunwale." 

This was the first appearance here of outriggers, although 
they were used in the Oxford-Cambridge races after 1846. 
Oddly enough, the boat most deficient in these appointments 
won the race. Soon after, Harvard obtained from St. John 
an eight-oar, built especially for racing, fifty-one feet long, 
a lap-streak, fairly outrigged, without a rudder, and decked 
over with canvas fore-and-aft. This, the first university, 
as distinguished from club -boat owned by Harvard, was 
never used against Yale. Meantime, the use of outriggers 
and spoon-oars was becoming more general at both colleges, 
thanks to the influence of English boat-builders and the 
St. John oarsmen. In the fall of 1857 James Mackay, an 
English resident of Brooklyn, built for Harvard the first 
six-oared shell ever constructed in this country. The Har- 
vard was forty feet long, "made short in order to turn a 

35i 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

stake easily," twenty-six inches wide amidships, and carry- 
ing iron outriggers, although the oars were not kept in place 
by wires. The material was white pine, and the boat 
weighed one hundred and fifty pounds. The Harvard was 
shorter, wider, and higher out of water than the modern 
racing-shell, but the general plan of construction was similar 
to that now followed. The new shell was tested in local 
races. "The fight between the Merrimac and wooden 
frigates was not more decisive, and lap-streak boats were 
henceforth useless for racing." 

In 1859 Yale appeared at Worcester with a new shell, 
built by Mackay, and with spoon-oars. The Yale shell, 
built of Spanish cedar, was forty-five feet long, twenty-four 
inches wide, eight inches deep. With her crew she drew 
four and a half inches of water. Each boat weighed one 
hundred and fifty pounds. The Yale shell, which was 
rigged for a coxswain, although said at the time to be the 
fastest racing-boat in America, was afterward pronounced 
unsatisfactory by a member of the crew. "The stroke was 
on the port side, the outriggers were shaky and short, and 
the spoon-oars were but ten feet long, the length of single 
sculls." This boat was received only three days before the 
race by a crew which had practised in a lap-streak without 
a coxswain, with oars thirteen and a half feet long, and the 
stroke on the starboard side. In consequence of the short- 
ness of the oars the Yale crew was forced to increase their 
stroke from thirty-eight to forty-five, and, in a final spurt, 
to sixty. The Harvard crew rowed without coxswain or 
rudder. Under these conditions the first race between the 
shells was pulled. As the record shows, Harvard won the 

352 



THE HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 8 5 2 - 1 88 5 

regular university race on July 26th, by sixty seconds, to 
be beaten by two seconds in the " Citizens' regatta" on the 
following day. This was Harvard's first defeat by Yale. 

The result was significant. The two lap-streaks entered 
in the first race were easily left behind, and the time made 
indicated a remarkable advance, in so far as the records 
of those years may be trusted. Yale's time, 19m. 14s., 
was the best ever made, except that of the Harvard crew, 
19m. us., in a Beacon cup regatta at Boston — a comparison 
which may be accepted for what it is worth, since both 
courses and times were unreliable. Thus the superiority 
of the shell was clearly demonstrated. And another im- 
portant outcome of these two races was Harvard's adoption 
of "a rudder connected with the bow-oarsman's feet by 
wires." In the "Citizens' regatta" Harvard drew the side 
more exposed to the high wind, which blew across the 
course, "some of the gusts being so strong that twice on 
one side the crew were obliged to hold water to get the 
boat's head around." Little importance is attached to the 
influence of the wind by Yale writers in view of Harvard's 
fast time; but the circumstance is mentioned here simply 
as the cause of a new departure in steering. Something had 
been done in this direction with the Harvard Undine, a four- 
oared boat, two years before; but the plan of a rudder 
worked by the bow-oarsman was not adopted until the 
"Citizens' regatta" proved that a shell could not be satis- 
factorily steered by the oars. Although new boats were 
built for the Cambridge oarsmen the pine shell Harvard was 
used in i860, winning three races, among them the race 
against Yale and Brown. In 1865 the Harvard was broken 

353 



BOATI NG BOOK FOR BOYS 

up and her pieces preserved as relics. The oarsmen of those 
days cherished a personal regard for their boats which, I 
think, no longer exists. The lap-streaks used in the " irreg- 
ular" races, and the first shells, were named, a custom long 
since abandoned, and after a service, in some cases of several 
years, the parting from these old boats was like a parting 
from old friends. 

Yale introduced the use of sliding-seats in 1870. A 
correspondent, writing from Worcester, naively described 
the Harvard men as having "seats some eighteen inches 
long, running fore-and-aft, polished smoothly, and coated 
with grease, upon which they slide. The Yale men have 
seats so mounted that they slide themselves." Notwith- 
standing Yale's new device Harvard reached the turning- 
stake first, but was disabled at that point by a foul. Yale's 
time was slow — a fact due, probably, to delay at the stake. 
When sliding-seats were first used in the Oxford-Cambridge 
race, in 1873, the time was astonishingly fast. Harvard 
adopted the sliding-seat in 1872, and was defeated by Am- 
herst, rowing with stationary seats; but Yale discarded the 
new invention in that year only to be the last of six crews. 
There was, therefore, some apparent reason for the earnest 
discussion, pro and con, which preceded the universal 
adoption of sliding-seats. 

From 1873 on the changes in the rig of six-oared shells 
were only trifling modifications of tolerably well-determined 
standards. In 1876 "the Yale eight-oar was built by 
Keast & Collins, of New Haven, after the model of one 
built for Yale by Clasper, of Oxford (England), while the 
Harvard boat was the work of Fearon, of Yonkers, These 

354 






THE HARVARD-YALE RACE — 1 85 2-1 883 

were the first eight-oared shells that ever competed in 
America." Paper boats built by Waters, of Troy, were 
favored for a time. The average length of these boats was 
fifty-eight feet. In 1882 Yale appeared with a boat sixty- 
seven feet long, so rigged that the men sat together in pairs. 
The temporary substitution of paper for wood as the ma- 
terial for racing-shells, which began in 1868, and the intro- 
duction of swivel row-locks were peculiarly interesting 
experiments, although only the latter proved permanent. 

Closely connected with the changes in boats is the de- 
velopment of boating methods, understanding by this 
phrase, training and styles of rowing. When the Harvard- 
Yale races began, such a thing as systematic physical edu- 
cation was unknown at our colleges. Dr. Sargent's scien- 
tific methods and his refinements in apparatus were not 
dreamed of. It was years afterward when Amherst became 
the pioneer in even and wholesome education of the body, 
and years after that when Cornell made general physical 
development an essential part of her curriculum. In 1852 
the Harvard crew only rowed a few times before the race, 
"for fear of blistering their hands." The Rev. James 
Whiton, of the Yale crew, wrote, in a subsequent account: 
"As to training, as now practised, there had been none — 
only that some care was taken of diet on the day of the race, 
such as to abstain from pastry and from summer fruit, and 
to eat meat in preference. One of the Yale clubs thought 
it was a smart thing when they turned out on Tuesday 
morning, an hour before sunrise, took their boat into a se- 
cluded cove, and rubbed her bottom with black-lead." In 

355 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS __ 

1855 the Harvard men "had all rowed during the spring- 
time, and had the same general style." The Yale crews 
"rowed with short, jerky strokes, more than sixty [?] to 
the minute." 

Up to 1864 the Harvard University crew had been beaten 
but twice — by the Union Club crew in Boston, 1857, and at 
Worcester in 1859. The Harvard men had the advantages 
of studying the St. John oarsmen, and they were near the 
water. "Yale never saw good rowing except at Springfield 
and Worcester." Nevertheless, the Yale crew of 1859 was 
put through a severe course of training. Winter gym- 
nasium work was taken up at both colleges after the second 
race. Among rowing-men Yale's short, choppy stroke and 
Harvard's long swing soon became proverbial. 

Training then, and for many years afterward, was largely 
guided by the crude empiricism of retired prize-fighters — 
"physic first, sweat and work down, no liquid, plenty of 
raw meat, and work it into 'em." An intelligent knowl- 
edge of the subject on the part of medical men, or amateur 
athletes of experience, was almost entirely wanting. 

The experiences of the Yale crews of 1864 and 1865 were 
forcible illustrations of old-school training. Mr. Edmund 
Coffin, a member of the Yale crew for three years, refers, 
in Yale Boating, to the training of those years as "more 
severe than any other college crews have ever had in this 
country. I believe the old and time-worn stories of raw 
beef, and the other things accompanying it, were facts with 
us; that training lasted about two months in its severity 
before the race. On week-days we rose about six, walked 
and ran before breakfast on an absolutely empty stomach, 

356 



THE HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 8 5 2- 1 83 5 

between three and five miles, running more than half the 
distance, and a part of that at full speed, often carrying 
small weights in our hands. Most of this running-exercise 
was taken in heavy flannels, for the purpose of melting off 
any possible fatty substance. After that we breakfasted, 
attended recitation for an hour, rowed about four miles, 
attended a second recitation, dined, rowed again the same 
distance, and had a third recitation in the afternoon. All 
the rowing was at full speed, much of it over the course on 
time. The bill-of-fare consisted of beef and mutton, with 
occasional chicken, toasted bread, boiled rice, and weak 
tea, no wine or beer, and very rarely vegetables." Such a 
system as this resulted in light crews, for one of its chief 
objects was "to get the men down." 

In 1864 a professional trainer was first employed — Mr. 
William Wood — who was with the Yale oarsmen for four 
weeks before the race. In the same year "the Harvard 
men appeared with bare backs; and, as they had practised 
all the season thus stripped, presented a rich mahogany 
color, while the Yale crews, who had rowed in shirts, were 
milk-white by contrast. The New York Sun, in its account 
of the race, attributed the hue of Harvard's oarsmen to the 
use of some artificial coloring matter." It was at this race 
that the magenta and crimson became popularly confounded 
as the Harvard colors. Magenta was the color of the class 
of 1866, which furnished the entire university crew in 1865. 
The crew of the preceding year, unable to find crimson hand- 
kerchiefs at Worcester, substitued magenta perforce, al- 
though the color was called "red" in the programmes. 
Perhaps Worcester was the first town ever literally "painted 

357 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

red." In 1865 the shops contained nothing but magenta, 
and its use caused an erroneous impression, officially cor- 
rected some ten years later by a formal return to crimson. 
Yale's stroke in these two races was quick and jerky, the 
arms doing more than their share of the work. Harvard, 
pulling only thirty-six and thirty-seven to the minute, was 
severely criticized by the New York Tribune, which re- 
marked editorially, in 1865, "No crew pulling less than 
forty to the minute has any right to expect to win a race." 
But a change was at hand. Under Mr. Wilbur R. Bacon's 
splendid discipline Yale had been victorious for two years. 
Harvard was stimulated to new efforts, directed by Mr. 
William Blaikie and other veteran oarsmen. For the first 
time at Cambridge the rowing-men entered upon regular 
work in the autumn. On alternate days they ran five or 
six miles. The old-school training was radically changed. 
"Instead of training off flesh the maxim was, keep all the 
flesh you can, and do the prescribed work." A far more 
liberal diet was adopted and continued up to the race ; and, 
as the result, a heavy, "beefy" crew, well trained, won the 
race of 1866. A close study was made of English rowing, 
improved rowing- weights were obtained, and on them the 
candidates for the crew pulled a thousand strokes daily 
throughout the winter, meantime applying the principles of 
the "English stroke." This meant more use of the back 
and legs, and a firm catch at the beginning of the stroke. 
Yale, although pulling a slower and longer stroke, still 
relied mainly on arm- work. In the race Harvard quickened 
up to forty-three; but Harvard's half -minute victory was 
considered due to her new style of rowing. Six years later 

358 



THE HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 8 5 2-1 885 

Mr. Robert J. Cook imported and modified an "English 
stroke," which won success for Yale. 

In 1 868, a year distinguished for the sign-stealing, howl- 
ing, and other nocturnal disturbances at Worcester, the 
styles of the two crews were described as follows: "Yale is 
dropping the rigid-arm stroke. The men reach well over 
their toes and come back with a strong, steady pull, finish- 
ing up with something very like a jerk, then recovering 
more slowly than the Harvards. Their backs are much 
more bent, and they do not seem to get so firm a hold. 
They row with oars rather longer, thus making up for less 
strokes. Harvard's stroke makes the men reach even 
farther forward, and row with perfectly straight backs, 
almost raising themselves off the seat at every stroke, giv- 
ing the stretcher a most wicked kick at the beginning, and 
finishing up gracefully with their arms." 

Thus the successive stages of rowing may be traced from 
exclusive use of the arms, at first, to use of the back and arms, 
then of the back and legs, with as little employment of the 
arms as possible, and finally to the principle of assigning 
to all the muscles of the body their fitting proportion of the 
work, but with the back and legs always the important 
factors. 

Of the slighter modifications introduced from year to 
year it is impossible and unnecessary to speak. The adop- 
tion of sliding-seats caused a slower stroke. The traditional 
"straight back" and "catch on the beginning" of Harvard 
date back to 1866 or 1867. After the time of Mr. Wilbur 
R. Bacon there was no radical new departure in rowing at 
Yale until Mr. Robert J. Cook spent the winter of 1872-73 

359 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

in England studying English rowing and gaining informa- 
tion of infinite value, which was practically applied in 1873. 
Newspaper ridicule of the "English stroke" was changed 
by the result of the race which was heralded as a "victory 
for Cook and for the slow stroke of thirty to thirty- two a 
minute with full use of the back and loins." Of this race 
The Harvard Book says: "Physically the Yale crew were 
not remarkably strong, but their captain had been able, by 
great perseverance and labor, to infuse into his crew the 
principles he had learned in England, and also his own 
energy and spirit. A great deal is seen in the newspapers 
about the English style, as if it were a peculiar and well- 
defined style. The fact is the English rowing-men have 
very different styles. When Harvard's four-oared crew 
were in England, in 1869, their style was preferred by the 
London watermen to Oxford's, as more like their own. The 
longer the race the slower should be the stroke, and what 
has been called the English stroke by the newspapers is 
simply the long stroke which is rather peculiar to Oxford 
and Cambridge, and to them only, when rowing over the 
Putney course of four and a quarter miles. Since the intro- 
duction here of straight-away races, where there is no 
change or let-up like that allowed in turning a stake, the 
crew cannot live to row a quick stroke even in a three-mile 
race. This fact gives color to the statements that the 
present [1875] style of rowing has been adopted from 
England." In 1882 Yale changed to a short, jerky stroke, 
pulled principally with the arms, the bodies swinging very 
little from the perpendicular. I believe Mr. Cook prompt- 
ly predicted defeat on first seeing this remarkable style of 

360 



THE HARVARD-YALE R AC E — 1 8 5 2 - 1 88 5 

rowing, and his prediction proved correct both in 1882 and 
1883. In 1884 the Yale crew returned to the old stroke, 
and after their victory Mr. Cook remarked, "We are now 
back to where we were in 1873," and he expressed a sincere 
hope that the "donkey-engine stroke" would not be seen 
again. 

At Harvard there was a new departure in 1877, which 
may be roughly termed a change from the "Loring stroke" 
to the stroke taught by Messrs. Watson and Bancroft. 
This stroke was begun with the body well forward, and the 
successive motions were: "first, the swing up, with a hard 
catch on the beginning; second, the slide with the legs, 
the arms still rigid; third, the arm pull, bringing the oar- 
handle to the chest; fourth, after the oar-blade is lifted 
from the water, a quick, outward shoot of the hands; fifth, 
the slide back by doubling the legs, and, last, the downward 
swing of the body." 

As to training, the prize-fighter school made its influence 
felt into the seventies. In 187 1 the Brown oarsmen were 
limited to nine swallows of water daily, and in 1873 the Dart- 
mouth giants were taken out directly after a hearty supper for 
a six-mile pull at full speed, on the old principle of "working 
food into 'em." Very naturally, four of the six were made 
sick, much to the surprise of John Biglin, their trainer. 
Fortunately, such ignorant and dangerous "training" as 
this has passed away. The best resources of science and 
experience are applied to the physical care of college oars- 
men. With a physician, a trained specialist, at hand to 
decide whether or not the candidate is fitted to compete 
for boating honors, the old argument of the dangerous over- 
24 361 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

exertion, and so on, of rowing rarely finds support. It is 
acknowledged that there are men with tendencies to heart 
troubles, let us say, who should never enter a racing-boat, 
just as there are men forbidden by inherited appetites to 
touch a drop of wine. But the first condition of participa- 
tion in competitive college athletics to-day is a competent 
physical examination. 

All this is of comparatively recent date, and yet, if we 
had such an American record as Dr. Morgan's University 
Oars, I think we should find very few instances of permanent 
injury, even among our earlier and poorly cared-for oarsmen. 
Let us gather a few names from such records as there are at 
hand. In the race of 1852 Mr. Benjamin K. Phelps, after- 
ward district attorney of New York, and Mr. George W. 
Smalley, the London correspondent of the Tribune for many 
years, were members of Yale's second crew, together with two 
future clergymen. Professor Alexander Agassiz was the 
bow-oar of Harvard's second crew in 1855, and he con- 
tinued to row "on the Varsity" in 1856, 1857, and 1858. 
In the last year Professor Agassiz occupied the bow, 
President Emeritus Charles W. Eliot the waist, and the 
stroke was the veteran B. W. Crowninshield — his fourth 
year in the Harvard crew. I regret to find in the records 
of that unsophisticated time that this crew rowed and 
won a race at Boston for a purse of $75, and another 
for a purse of $100. According to the fine distinctions of 
these suspicious latter days President Eliot lost rank as 
an amateur oarsman. As the race of 1858 was abandoned, 
President Eliot never enjoyed an opportunity of rowing 
against Yale. Mr. Caspar Crowninshield, who made his 

362 



THE HARVARD-YALE RACE — 1 85 2-1 885 

debut in 1858, rowed for three years, and was followed by 
Mr. F. Crowninshield in 1865 — the third Harvard stroke 
furnished by the family. He, like Mr. William Blaikie, 
Dr. C. H. McBurney, and R. S. Peabody, the architect, 
was a member of the famous boating-class of 1866. The 
names of Richard Waite, William P. Bacon, Charles H. 
Owen, Hamilton Wallis, and S. C. Pierson are distinguished 
in Yale's earlier boating annals, and "Wilbur Bacon's 
crew" has become a tradition. 

On the battle-field, as well as on the river, college oarsmen 
have made a record of courage and endurance. A member 
of the Yale crew of 1859 writes, "Within five years after 
the race every one of the Yale seven, and all but one of the 
Harvard six, held their commands as United States army 
officers." Mr. Bray ton Ives, Yale's bow-oar in i860, won 
the rank of Colonel in the Union army, and, according to 
a class history, was "in command of the troops who es- 
corted General Grant to the conference with General Lee, 
which resulted in the surrender of the rebel army." In 
after years Mr. Ives was elected president of the New York 
Stock Exchange and president of the University Club in 
New York. Mr. A. P. Loring, a member of the Harvard 
crews of 1866, 1867, and 1868, pulled stroke of the four beaten 
by Oxford in 1869. Mr. Robert C. Watson rowed on the 
Harvard crew in 1867 and 1868, and his valuable counsel 
later to Harvard oarsmen showed that his enthusiastic 
interest in boating remained unabated. 

Mr. William A. Copp entered the Yale crew of 1866, and 
rowed for four years, only to be beaten every year. Yale 
had just won a race when he began to row, but she won no 

363 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

other until he was a graduate of four years' standing. I 
know nothing regarding Mr. Copp's personality, but I am 
filled with admiration at his courage in coming up, year 
after year, only to face defeat. So the roll might be pro- 
longed, McCook, Bone, Day, Adee, Kennedy, Kellogg, Thomp- 
son, representing a few of Yale's more persistent oarsmen, 
and Lyman, Simmons, Goodwin, Dana, Otis, and the Bacons 
serving the same end for Harvard. In this history there are 
two names which deserve conspicuous recognition — those of 
Robert J. Cook and William A. Bancroft. The author of 
the article on boating, in the History of Yale College, alludes 
to the fact that the class of '76 furnished for four years a 
captain of the university crew, and says : ' ' This was Robert 
Johnston Cook, whose five years' practice of rowing at 
Yale, and quiet persistence in his determination to follow 
what seemed to him the best attainable methods of that 
art — spite of ridicule, abuses, and slander — resulted in a 
personal triumph and vindication quite unprecedented in 
the annals of American college-boating. It is simply a fact 
to say that no other collegian ever did so much to develop 
skill in rowing at Yale." 

Mr. Bancroft, in 1876, pulled stroke of the Harvard six 
at Saratoga, and of the eight-oared crew at Springfield. 
He continued as stroke of the Harvard crew for three years 
more, winning three out of the four eight-oared races with 
Yale. Very few men have worked more faithfully in the 
cause of Harvard boating, or studied styles of rowing more 
carefully, than Mr. Bancroft. There are other oarsmen, 
among them the members of Yale's splendid crew of 1876, 
and of Harvard's victorious crews of 1877, 1878, and 1879, 

364 



THE HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 8 5 2 -1 88 5 



whose work should be recognized, but I can only single out 
a few, and I am confident that the memories of many of 
my readers will supply the deficiencies. 

Since the Harvard- Yale University race to 1885 forms my 
subject I have passed over the class and single-scull races and 
the intercollegiate and other contests, like those with out- 
side clubs and professional crews. In the earlier years of 
college-rowing, races with professionals, like the Ward and 
Biglin crews, were of common occurrence, and judges or 
referees at regular college regattas were sometimes se- 
lected from the same class. Harvard never employed a 
professional trainer in those years, although Yale crews, 
from 1864 to 1870, were under the care of "profession- 
als." 

The undergraduates themselves have an important 
though very different part in forming the character of these 
races. Nothing tended to lower college-boating in the 
eyes of outsiders so much as the disputes and recriminations 
which accompanied some Harvard- Yale races in their earlier 
years. Of these quarrels this article has taken little ac- 
count, although in some boating records to which I have 
referred this acrimonious spirit has been preserved in per- 
manent form. These issues are past, and it is the hope of 
all graduates that the newspapers will never again be filled 
with the squabbles of Harvard and Yale. The under- 
graduates of to-day have to sustain the dignity of their 
colleges and atone for some errors of their predecessors. 
This I think they are doing. This race is, or should be, a 
test of the picked men from the two colleges, pitted against 

36s 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

each other under conditions which each side should desire 
to make equal. In methods of training and styles of row- 
ing each crew may well endeavor to surpass the other. But 
anything which savors of a professional spirit must be 
discountenanced . 

To visit New London for the race is a very different thing 
from a visit to New London for itself. The old order has 
not wholly passed away, and contrasts of new and old face 
the lingering visitor on every side. The old mill stands in 
its mossy, shaded ravine as it stood in colonial days, and 
beside it the Winthrop mansion rears a front still stately, 
although insulted by the changes upon which it looks. Up 
on the hill the crumbling stones of an ancient God's acre 
preserve, in quaint phrase and eccentric rhyme, the memories 
of departed worthies, some of whom worshiped in a rude 
meeting-house hard by, while sentinels watched for the ap- 
proach of prowling Pequots. The meeting-house has van- 
ished as entirely as the Pequot. The modern church has 
usurped its place. But, just as the name of the Mohegans 
is preserved by a few descendants to the northward, so the 
earlier life of this seaport town is embalmed in its buildings 
scattered here and there, the old side by side with the new. 
Legends of Indian stratagem and Revolutionary warfare 
and tales of the stirring days when New London's wharves 
were lined with whalers and merchant-vessels are repre- 
sented by the odd old buildings which the passer-by scans 
askance. Outside the town the contrast continues. An- 
cient gambrel-roofed cottages look down from the hills 
upon Newport-like villas and velvet lawns, and a stone 
dwelling which might pass for the tower of the Master of 

366 






BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Ravens wood stands within rifle-shot of a beach called 
"the Coney Island of Connecticut." 

But this is not the New London of the boat-race excur- 
sionist. For him there waits the brilliant spectacle of a great 
race which can be seen under favorable conditions. On the 
eventful day he finds himself four miles up the river, eager- 
ly scanning the red-roofed cottage across the water, or the 
boat-house farther up, below Yale's quarters on the point, 
until at last he sees stalwart student-oarsmen appearing on 
the floats, while the sunlight glistens on the polished shells 
raised in air for a moment, then tenderly lowered to the 
water. Now the two boats shoot across the river, wel- 
comed lustily by the gaily beribboned throng which fills 
the long line of observation-cars. 

Suddenly the cheers die away. The crews are in 
line. Behind them are sixty years of rivalry. Before 
them the silvery pathway of the Thames leads on 
past the navy-yard, past Mamacoke headland, to a wil- 
derness of masts, and the grand-stand on the point, while 
the Groton Monument on the one side and the spires 
of New London on the other seem to mark the finish-line. 
And now, even while we are wondering at the beauty 
of the scene, a pistol cracks, and the roar of a thousand voices 
from the moving train breaks the silence of suspense. The 
crews are off, striving desperately for the vantage of the 
start, then settling down into their steady stroke. What 
can be better than this? Here before us are the best men 
of our two greatest colleges. For nearly a year they have 
led lives of ascetic self-denial. They have given up their 
pleasures; they have resigned their very wills to the con- 

368 



THE HARVARD-YALE R A CE — 1 8 5 2 - 1 88 5 

trol of others; they have exercised aching muscles in gym- 
nasiums, on the running-path, in long, hard rows, for months — 
and for what ? All for this, for the twenty thrilling minutes 
of a race, which shall either proclaim their year's work 
naught or return them, crowned with laurels, to their 
college, to meet there such a triumph as awaited the victors 
in the Grecian games. Is it not magnificent, the sight of 
the splendid rivalry before us ? Not one of these bronzed, 
sturdy giants needs the stimulus of the cheers wafted across 
from the shore. Each will put forth all that is in him, al- 
though his eyes grow blind and his heart break in the effort. 
And now we see the eight broad backs in one boat rising 
and falling more and more quickly. Keen eyes on shore 
detect the spurt, and there is a note of fierceness in the yells 
hurled at the lagging crew. Now the latter quickens, and 
so the race goes on. Likely enough we can tell its outcome 
by the time the two-mile flag is reached. Then for two 
miles more we shall hear an exultant, frenzied cheering, 
mingled with the sullen shouts of the defeated. Now the 
noise redoubles. The excited crowd at the grand -stand 
have joined the chorus, and the yachts send back their 
cheers. Down close to the point, past the gaily decorated 
yachts, flash the two boats, and the roar of cannon tells 
the end of the race. 



Chapter XXXIV 

THE HARVARD-YALE RACE 
1885-1912 

IN 1885 the writer was a member of the Columbia Uni- 
versity crew that journeyed to New London to row 
against the Harvard eight. We were quartered next door 
to Yale, and, not having any regular race on with the 
dark blue, we had a number of practice starts and brushes 
with them. These tests showed the two crews to be about 
even. 

When Harvard arrived both Yale and Columbia were 
greatly surprised at the entirely new and unorthodox style 
of the Cambridge men. They sat very high in the boat; 
the torso swing had been shortened ; but the slide had been 
lengthened, thus evening up matters. The conventional 
hard catch on the beginning was entirely wanting. Smiles 
were seen on Yale and Columbia faces, and Harvard was 
put down for a double defeat. But on closer inspection, 
the crimson men showed that they were perfectly together 
in every way. The lack of the initial hard catch was made 
up for by the vigorous heave which was begun after the 
stroke had commenced, and which was carried through to 
the very finish. And this was accomplished synchronously, 

370 



THE HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 88 5-1 9 1 2 



in perfect unison — a difficult feat in this style of rowing, 
which is the stroke of single-scullers. The watermanship 
was as nearly perfect as we ever saw, and the boat traveled 
on an absolutely even keel at all times, despite the fact 
that the seats were so high. The rigging had been ex- 
ceptionally well done, the four oars on each side always 
being parallel. 

Columbia's race with Harvard came several days earlier 
than the date of the meeting between Yale and Harvard. 

In an appallingly few strokes after the starting-pistol 
had been fired Harvard's rudder went out of our side vision 
like a flash. It seemed as though we were actually an- 
chored. Harvard flew away from us. Spurt as we might, 
we could make no impression on their ever-increasing lead. 
When we returned crestfallen to the float at Gale's Ferry, 
the Yale men greeted us with ridicule, and remarked that 
the result was on account of "the stage-fright which you 
inexperienced New-Yorkers had over you." 

Yale's turn came. Harvard went away from them even 
faster than she had left us ; and the dark blue was a minute 
and a quarter behind at the finish — one of the greatest 
differences in time in New London records. 

But Harvard could not repeat. Although the next year 
she had seven of the original crew in the boat, she had lost 
that rare, good oar, Captain J. J. Storrow; and he had been 
in a most important seat — number seven. 

In 1 8 86 both Yale and Columbia, the latter coached by 
the writer, won from the crimson. 

The loss of Storrow, and the inability of the Cambridge 
men to execute this difficult stroke as perfectly in unison 

37i 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

as they had done the year before, were the chief causes of 
their downfall. 

Thereafter, as will be seen by the record, Yale had a 
long string of fifteen winnings, interrupted only by two Har- 
vard victories, thus more than balancing the great majority 
which Harvard had before piled up. 

Storrow's phenomenal 1885 crew, which brought a new 
style as a model for Harvard rowing-men, really put a set- 
back to her rowing, as, to a great extent, it counteracted 
the good old orthodox principles which Bancroft had won 
with, and which he had instilled into Harvard boating. 

Several men of the "1885 school" tried in succeeding 
years to turn out a winning boat. And Messrs. Watson 
and Peabody, working together, coached a couple of years 
on former principles, but the change to the old style was 
too radical; the rowing-men in college could not ''un- 
learn" their accustomed stroke. 

There were two breaks in Yale's winning streak. The 
first came in 1891, when Henry Keyes developed the Har- 
vard crew; and the second was in 1899, when Mumford and 
E. C. Storrow coached the crimson. 

Meanwhile "Bob" Cook and his pupil-proteges stuck to 
the well-defined old Yale style; and to their great work is 
due the consistently good rowing of the dark blue during 
a long period. For over a decade Mr. Cook continued to 
guide Yale, assisted by the able coaching of Dr. John Rogers, 
Jr., Alfred Cowles, Frederick Allen, and Edson M. Gallaudet. 

Then followed a half-dozen years during which Gallaudet 
and Allen were the head coaches — the former having charge 
during the first half of the period. 

372 






THE HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 885- 1 9 1 2 



John Kennedy, the professional, had for years been assist- 
ing Cook and his followers in rigging the boats. He grad- 
ually took over more and more of the coaching until 1902, 
when he was made head coach. This position he held 
until the end of the season of 191 1, when he retired. 

Harvard made a decided departure in 1896 by inviting 
Mr. R. C. Lehman, the famous British coach, to come here 
and teach the English stroke. He drilled the crimson 
candidates during the autumn of 1896, and returned from 
England early in 1897 to coach until the end of the season. 

That year Harvard rowed with Cornell and Yale at 
Poughkeepsie. 

A number of days before the race Mr. Lehman, rowing 
at stroke, with one of the Harvard crew at bow, took the 
writer out in a pair-oared gig to demonstrate the English 
style which he was teaching to Harvard. The writer was 
surprised to see the extremely long swing toward the bow 
which the stroke entailed, and feared that the tax on the 
abdominal muscles during the recover would be too great 
for our boys. When this was told to Mr. Lehman, he 
replied, "We never have any trouble in England with this 
long swing past the perpendicular." But conditions which 
obtain in England are entirely different from those which 
exist here. There, almost without exception, the men 
who eventually "make" the Oxford and Cambridge boats 
start rowing as mere school-boys. They use the long swing 
during all of their preparatory boating, developing the ab- 
dominal muscles ; and thus they become inured to the strain 
of this position. Here, except in rare instances, our college 
oarsmen have absolutely no experience before their fresh- 

373 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

man year; hence they have not these developed abdom- 
inal muscles essential for the recover from the long 
swing toward the bow. This is precisely wherein Harvard 
failed. In every other essential the crimson rowing was 
beautiful. Cornell and Yale fought it out, the former 
winning by ten seconds, while the Cambridge men were 
decisively beaten. 

The next year these three universities raced at New 
London, each using the style of stroke that it had rowed 
at Poughkeepsie, and the result was identically the 
same. 

In 1904 Frederick Colson, the ex -Cornell coxswain- 
captain and former assistant coach, went to Cambridge for 
one year to teach Cornell's stroke. This also was an un- 
successful move. 

The year following, James Wray, the professional single- 
sculler, was engaged by one of the boat clubs at Harvard, 
and was so successful that a little later he was made 'Varsity 
coach. He began by teaching all of his pupils to scull, 
and he still keeps this up. Through his good work the 
crimson has beaten Yale five times in the last six races, 
the last four wins having been in succession. Harvard has 
again struck her gait and is once more on top. 

After the disappointments of the last few years, Yale 
has again made a radical change, and the pendulum of her 
rowing policy has once more swung back to the amateur 
graduate-coach system. 

James O. Rogers, '98, captain of the '97 foot-ball eleven, 
afterward head foot-ball coach, and who rowed number four 
on the Yale 'Varsity eight at Henley in 1896, has been made 

374 



BOA TING BOOK FOR BOYS 

head rowing - coach. He was a pupil of Cook, and- has 
coached several freshman crews. 

And in this connection it is interesting to note that Yale 
is now the only university, with the sole exception of 
Princeton, whose rowing is under the guidance of an amateur 
coach. 

In the chapter on "Yale Boating," prepared by "Karl 
Kron" for the History of Yale College, there is a resume of 
the Harvard- Yale races, republished by the author in the 
Boat-race Bulletin, of which he was the editor from 1878 to 
1883. His record has been followed from 1852 to 1883, with 
some slight changes and additions. 



THE RECORD OF HARVARD-YALE RACES 

FIRST PERIOD — 1852-60 — IRREGULAR RACES 

i. 1852, August 3. — Lake Winnipiseogee, Center Harbor, N. H., 
2 miles straight pull to windward in eight-oared barges, class of '53. 
Oneida, of Harvard, defeated Halcyon, of Yale, by two lengths; time about 
10m. 

2. 1855, July 21. — Connecticut River, Springfield, i}4 miles down- 
stream and return, in barges. Iris (eight-oared) and F. F. (four-oared), 
of Harvard; Nereid and Nautilus (both six -oared), of Yale. Allowing 
eleven seconds' handicap per oar for the smaller craft, the times of the 
boats in the order named were 22m.; 22m. 3s.; 23m. 38s.; 24m. 38s. 

3. 1859, July 26. — Lake Quinsigamond, Worcester, Mass., i}4 miles 
up the lake and return. Harvard shell, 19m. 18s.; Yale shell, 20m. 18s.; 
Harvard lap -streak, Avon, 21m. 13s.; Brown lap -streak, Atlanta, 
24m. 40s. 

4. 1859, July 27. — Same course and same shell-crews, in "Citizens' 
regatta." Yale, 19m. 14s.; Harvard, 19m. 16s. 

5. i860, July 24. — Same course. Harvard, 18m. 53s.; Yale, 19m. 
5s.; Brown, 21m. 15s. 

376 



THE HARVARD-YALE R AC E — 1 8 8 5 - 1 9 1 2 



SECOND PERIOD — 1864-70 — UNIVERSITY RACES — SAME COURSE 

1864, July 29. — Yale, 19m. is., won by 42>£s. 

1865, July 28. — Yale, 17m. 42>^s., won by 26KS. 

1866, July 27. — Harvard, 18m. 43s., won by 27s. 

1867, July 19. — Harvard, 18m. 13s., won by 72>£s. 

1868, July 24. — Harvard, 17m. 48^., won by 50s. 

1869, July 23. — Harvard, 18m. 2s., won by 9s. 

1870, July 22. — Harvard, 20m. 30s., won by foul. 



THIRD PERIOD — 1871-75 — UNIVERSITY RACES 

i. 187 1, July 21. — Three colleges. Massachusetts Agricultural de- 
feated Harvard 37s. (16m. 46>^s. to 17m. 23>^s.), and Brown 61s. (17m. 
47^s.); Harvard defeated Brown 24s. 

2. 1872, July 24. — Six colleges. Amherst defeated Harvard 24s. (16m. 
33s. to 16m. 57s.); Agricultural, 37s. (17m. 10s.); Bowdoin, 58s. (17m. 
31s.); Williams, 86s. (17m. 50s.); Yale, 100s. (18m. 13s.); Harvard de- 
feated Yale 76s. 

3. 1873, July 17. — Eleven colleges. Yale defeated Wesley an 10s. 
(16m. 59s. to 17m. 9s.); Harvard, 37KS. (17m. $6}4s.); Amherst, 41s. 
(17m. 40s.); Dartmouth, 68s. (18m. 7s.); Columbia, 77s. (18m. 16s.); 
Massachusetts Agricultural, 87>^s. (18m. 26J^s.); Cornell, 93s. (18m. 
32s.); Bowdoin, no>£s. (18m. 49>^s.); Trinity, 154s. (19m. 33s.); 
Williams, 166s. (19m. 45s.). 

4. 1874, July 18. — Nine colleges. Columbia defeated Wesley an 8s. 
(16m. 42s. to 16m. 50s.); Harvard, 12s. (16m. 54s.); Williams, 26s. 
(17m. 8s.); Cornell, 49s. (17m. 31s.); Dartmouth, 78s. (18m.); Trinity, 
101s. (18m. 22,.); Princeton, 116s. (18m. 38s.); Yale fouled and with- 
drew. 

5. 1875, July 14. — Thirteen colleges. Cornell defeated Columbia 1 is. 
(16m. 53>^s. to 17m. 4.Hs.); Harvard, ii}4s>. (17m. 5s.); Dartmouth, 
17s. (17m. io}4s.)) Wesleyan, 20s. (17m. i3^2S.); Yale, 21s. (17m. i4>£s.); 
Amherst, 36s. (17m. 29>^s.); Brown, 40s. (17m. 33KS.); Williams, 50s. 
(17m. 43KS.); Bowdoin, 57s. (17m. i5>^s.); Hamilton, time not taken; 
Union, time not taken ; Princeton, withdrew ; Harvard, defeated Yale g}4s. 

6. 1876, July 19. — Six colleges. Cornell defeated Harvard 4s. (17m. 
iKs. to 17m. 5>^s.); Columbia, 7s. (17m. 8>^s.); Union, 26s. (17m. 
27KS.); Wesleyan, 57s. (17m. 58>£s.); Princeton, 69s. (18m. 10s.). 

25 377 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



PERIOD — EIGHT-OARED RACES — FOUR MILES 

20. — Yale, 22m. 2S.; Harvard, 22m. 31s. 
30. — Harvard, 24m. 36s.; Yale, 24m. 43s. 
28. — Harvard, 20m. 44s.; Yale, 21m. 29s. 
27. — Harvard, 22m. 15s.; Yale, 23m. 48s. 
1. — Yale, 24m. 27s.; Harvard, 25m. 9s. 
1. — Yale, 22m. 13s.; Harvard, 22m. 19s. 
30. — Harvard, 20m. 47s.; Yale, 20m. 50s. 
30. — Harvard, 25m. 46>^s.; Yale, 26m. 49s. 
30. — Yale, 20m. 3 is.; Harvard, 20m. 48s. 

from 1885-1912 

26. — Harvard, 25m. i$}4§.) Yale, 26m. 30s. 
2. — Yale, 20m. ^i%s.; Harvard, 21m. 5s. 
1. — Yale, 22m. 56s,.; Harvard, 23m. io^s. 
29. — Yale, 20m. 1 os.; Harvard, 21m. 24^2 s. 
29.— Yale, 21m. 30s.; Harvard, 21m. 55s. 
27. — Yale 21m. 29s.; Harvard, 21m. 40s. 
26. — Harvard, 21m. 23s.; Yale, 21m. 57s. 
1. — Yale, 20m. 48s.; Harvard, 21m. 42>^s. 
3. — Yale, 25m. i)4&.\ Harvard, 25m. 15s. 
28. — Yale, 22m. 47s.; Harvard, 24m. 40s. 
28. — Yale, 21m. 30s.; Harvard, 22m. 5s. 
29. — Harvard, 20m. 52J^s.; Yale, 21m. 13s. 
28. — Yale, 21m. i2$s.; Harvard, 21m. 37-fs. 
27. — Yale, 23m. 37s.; Harvard, 23m. 45s. 
26. — Yale, 20m. 20s.; Harvard, 20m. 33s. 
25. — Yale, 20m. igfs.; Harvard, 20m. 2ofs. 
30. — Yale, 21m. 4o>^s.; Harvard, 22m. 10s. 
29. — Yale, 22m. 33s.; Harvard, 22m. 36s. 
28. — Harvard, 23m. 2s.; Yale, 23m. us. 
27. — Yale, 21m. 10s.; Harvard, 21m. 13s. 
25. — Harvard, 24m. 10s.; Yale, 27m. 45s. 
1. — Harvard, 21m. 50s.; Yale, 22m. 10s. 
30. — Harvard, 20m. 46KS.; Yale, 21m. 4s. 
30. — Harvard, 22m. 44s.; Yale, 23m. 4i>2S. 

The fastest time for the New London four-mile course i< 
20m. ios., made by Yale in 1888. 

378 





FOURTH 


I 


1876, June 


2 


1877 


, June 


3 


1878 


June 


4 


1879 


, June 


5 


1880 


July 


6 


1881 


July 


7 


1882 


June 


8 


1883 


June 


9 


1884 


June 


10 


1885 


June 


11 


1886 


July 


12 


1887 


July 


13 


1888 


June 


14 


1889 


June 


is 


1890 


June 


16 


1891 


June 


17 


1892 


July 


18 


1893 


June 


19 


1894 


June 


20 


1895 


June 


21 


1899 


June 


22 


1900 


June 


2 3 


1901 


June 


24 


1902 


June 


25 


1903 


June 


26 


1904 


June 


27 


1905 


June 


28 


1906 


June 


29 


1907 


June 


30 


1908 


June 


3i 


1909 


July 


32 


1910 


June 


33 


1911 


June 



TH E HARVARD-YALE R ACE — 1 8 8 5- 1 9 1 2 

In 1896 there was no Harvard- Yale race. Yale went to 
England to row in the Henley Regatta, where she was beat- 
en; and Harvard took part in the Intercollegiate Regatta 
at Poughkeepsie on June 26th, where she was second to 
Cornell, beating Pennsylvania and Columbia. Time: Cor- 
nell, 19m. 59s.; Harvard, 20m. 8s. 

In 1897, on June 25th, Harvard, Yale, and Cornell rowed 
at Poughkeepsie. Cornell won; Yale was second. Time: 
Cornell, 20m. 34s.; Yale, 20m. 44s.; Harvard, 21m. 

In 1898 Harvard, Yale, and Cornell rowed at New Lon- 
don. Cornell won; Yale was second. Time: Cornell, 23m. 
48s.; Yale, 24m. 2s. ; Harvard, 24m. 35s. 

Harvard and Yale have rowed forty -five dual races, be- 
ginning in 1852 on Lake Winnipiseogee. Of these Yale has 
won twenty-three and Harvard twenty-two. And this of 
itself is an eloquent demonstration of the equality of the 
efficiency of their respective methods during all these years, 
for in environment and number of students they are closely 
similar. The record of Oxford and Cambridge is not nearly 
so even. 



Chapter XXXV 

INTERCOLLEGIATE ROWING AT POUGHKEEPSIE 

THE Intercollegiate Rowing Association has held regattas 
on the Hudson, at Poughkeepsie, since 1895, when 
Columbia won. Wisconsin, Syracuse, Pennsylvania, Cor- 
nell, and Columbia take part in these races each year. 
All are coached by professionals — Columbia by James C. 
Rice; Cornell by Charles E. Courtney; Pennsylvania by 
Ellis F. Ward; Syracuse by James A. Ten Eyck; and 
Wisconsin by Harry Vail. 

Princeton has re-entered the sport after an absence of 
over a quarter of a century. This was made possible by 
the beautiful artificial lake which was made for the New 
Jersey college by Andrew Carnegie, and which bears his 
name. 

As yet the faculty allows the students to row no races 
away from home ; but the best 'Varsity crews in the country 
go to Princeton, on invitation, to row with her men. Dr. 
J. Duncan Spaeth, professor in the university, is the coach, 
and is doing remarkably good work. 

The United States Naval Academy has had 'Varsity 
crews for a number of years. The midshipmen usually row 
on their home water — the Severn River, where they meet 

380 



ROWING AT POUGHKEEPSIE 

some of the leading 'Varsity crews in early spring races. 
The Annapolis men are coached by Richard Glendon. 

University rowing is rapidly growing in the West; Wash- 
ington, California, and Leland Stanford now have a 'Varsity 
race each year. 

While the score of Harvard and Yale is within one race 
of being even, the record of the Intercollegiate Rowing 
Association, since its inception at Poughkeepsie in 1895, is 
more one-sided — Cornell having won twelve of the eighteen 
'Varsity races rowed. (And also she holds the record for 
four miles, which is 18m. 53-J-s., made in 1901.) This is due 
to several things. In the first place, this university is par- 
ticularly fortunate in having a very large number of can- 
didates turn out for the boats each year. Secondly, no 
rowing university in the world has had one and the same 
coach so many years successively. And this fact has ena- 
bled Charles E. Courtney, the Cornell rowing teacher, grad- 
ually to build up a definite system ; while our other colleges 
have often changed coaches, with consequent radical alter- 
ations in methods and style. This Cornell system which 
Courtney has developed is unique. 

Briefly, it is as follows : 1 . Absolute control by Courtney, 
with no interference whatever. 2. No captain. Cornell 
has not had a crew captain for a number of years. The 
coxswain gives the necessary orders, and, of course, the 
stroke -man has more or less discretion as to the manage- 
ment of the boat while he is actually in it; but everything 
else is in the hands of the coach. 3. As nearly perfect 
mechanical fittings of the boat in every detail as is possi- 
ble; and this "rigging" is infinitely more important than 

381 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

most people — even rowing-men — realize. 4. No alcohol in 
any form. Courtney allows no ale or stimulant of any 
kind at the training - table, or anywhere else. 5. High 
moral effect on the men in every way possible. 6. No 
gymnasium exercise whatever — only rowing. Cornell even 
goes so far as to gut out the old - established custom of 
running to improve the "wind," Courtney's theory being 
that it is more conducive to the development of speed 
to use all the extra energy which the men have direct- 
ly in the boat, thus getting much more rowing prac- 
tice, experience, and smoothness. In this way the rowing 
muscles only are developed, avoiding the condition known 
as "muscle-boundness." A man who does much gym- 
nasium work develops opposing muscles on different sides 
of the bones. This, while it gives good general develop- 
ment, is apt to bring on "muscle-boundness," which prevents 
the man from getting a good reach easily, which is so 
essential to smoothness and speed in the boat. 

During the last few years Yale, Pennsylvania, and Cor- 
nell have gone to Henley without success; and Harvard 
has also traveled to England to meet Cambridge, and has 
been defeated. The tale would undoubtedly be different 
were the best English crew to meet us here or on neutral 
waters. 

Many improvements have been made in the last quarter 
of a century in the boats, oars, and mechanical fittings. 

The paper shell had a comparatively short life. It was 
found from experience that both single shells and crew- 
boats made of wood were much faster. The porosity of 
the Spanish cedar gives the much -needed "life" — buoyancy, 

382 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

which is essential to speed. Aluminum was also tried by- 
Cornell as a material for boat -building, but the expansion 
and contraction from heat and cold were too great, and it 
was abandoned. Briefly, the other improvements have 
been: the perfection of the swivel row-lock; the addition 
of roller wheels to the sliding-seat ; the decided incline of 
the slide; the fin on the bottom of the boat, to keep it 
from heading up into the wind (and this has even been 
made so as to be raised and lowered like a centerboard in 
a sailing-boat) ; and the bulkheads in the cockpit of the 
boat, with swinging gates, which allow all water which 
may be shipped to go astern at each stroke, without re- 
turning, so that the coxswain may either pump or dip it 
out. 

One of the greatest steps forward has been in the "rig- 
ging." The only fixed points affecting a man in a boat 
are the stretcher and the pin of the row-lock. Upon the 
relative position of the former to the latter, for each in- 
dividual, a vast amount depends. It is obvious that if a 
man's stretcher is moved toward the stern, his blade will 
go farther toward the bow and less toward the stern; and, 
conversely, if the stretcher is moved toward the bow, the 
blade goes less toward the bow and farther astern. The 
great desideratum is not only properly to divide the stroke 
fore-and-aft of the pin of the row-lock ; but also to have the 
oars on each side of the boat parallel. To accomplish this, 
the stretchers must be properly placed. 

Cornell, as well as some of the other universities, has a 
machine placed on the floor with a sliding-seat. On either 
side is an outrigger and row-lock. A line is drawn on the 

384 



ROWING AT POUG HKEEPSIE 

floor at right angles to the side of the machine, passing 
directly under the pin of the row-lock. The proper fore- 
and-aft division of the stroke is marked out on the floor. 
The men in turn are put on the sliding-seat and row with 
the oar. The stretcher is moved back and forth, until 
the end of the blade describes as nearly as possible the 
desired arc of a circle. The distance from the pin to the 
stretcher is measured, and this is the measure for the man's 
stretcher in the boat. But this is only one — the most im- 
portant, perhaps — of the many details of rigging. 

The actual stroke, as rowed to-day by Harvard, Yale, 
Cornell, Columbia and one or two other colleges differs 
very slightly in its component parts from that used years 
ago, which is described in Part I; but its execution has been 
much improved. A most noticeable change is in the 
smoothness, one part being run into the next without the 
semblance of a pause or hitch. The amalgamated whole is 
one continuous wheel-like motion. Courtney once naively 
answered, when asked something about the beginning of 
Cornell's stroke, "There is no beginning; it's always 
going." Furthermore, at the beginning of the heave the 
torsos and the slides start together; and, on the recover, 
hands, torsos, and slides commence to move at the same 
time; but, of course, the hands travel the fastest. These 
are decided innovations of late years. Also the very fast 
slide during the first part of the recover, with the extremely 
slow slide during the last part, just before the full reach is 
attained, has been much perfected of late. This not only 
eliminates the check of the boat between strokes, but it 
gives a most excellent breathing period. 

385 



Chapter XXXVI 

AMERICAN AMATEUR ROWING 

IN addition to the college rowing, which we have described, 
there is great interest in many centers, both here and 
in Canada, in amateur oarsmanship. 

The regatta of the National Association of Amateur 
Oarsmen, which is held annually, decides the champion- 
ships of America in the various classes. There is no fixed 
course, the regattas being held at the various rowing-centers 
successively. The course is one and one quarter miles 
straight-away, which is the distance of almost all of the 
amateur non-collegiate races. 

Other important regattas are the American Henley, held 
each spring at Philadelphia, on the Schuylkill course (as 
is the case in the English Henley, college crews enter 
and meet the amateur boat clubs) ; the Harlem Regatta, 
held in New York; the People's Regatta, held in Philadel- 
phia; the New England Rowing Association Regatta, 
usually rowed at Boston; the Hudson River Rowing Asso- 
ciation Regatta; the Long Island Rowing Association 
Regatta; the Middle States Rowing Association Regatta; 
the Schuylkill Navy Regatta, and the Central States Row- 
ing Association Regatta. 

The Canadians are enthusiastic oarsmen, Toronto being 

386 



AMER ICAN AMATEUR ROWING 

a great boating focus, with its large and active Argonaut 
Rowing Club. The Royal Canadian Henley, which always 
has many entries from the United States, is an annual 
fixture. 

We are following in England's footsteps by encouraging 
more and more school-boy rowing. Boston and Philadel- 
phia are especially active in fostering the sport in prepara- 
tory schools. 

For many years the writer has studied the physical effects 
of rowing from three viewpoints: that of personal experi- 
ence in the boat; that of a coach; and that of a physician. 
And he is convinced that more benefit is derived from this 
sport, with less chance of injury, than from any other form 
of athletics. The great authority, Dr. Dudley A. Sargent, 
Harvard's physical director, asserts that college rowing 
leads to long life and that the men who take part in it 
marry younger and have more children than do other 
athletes. 

Some years ago there arose in the British press a great 
discussion as to whether rowing was injurious. This ex- 
tended to the medical profession, with the result that a 
prominent surgeon, himself an old Oxford oar, undertook 
the task of an exhaustive search of the post-collegiate lives 
of all the men who had rowed in the university races cover- 
ing a period of forty years. The results of the investiga- 
tion were as follows: 

Benefited by rowing 115 

Uninjured 162 

Injured 17 

[University Oars, by John Ed. Morgan, M.A., Oxon., F.R.C.P.] 

387 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

The last figure undoubtedly would have been reduced, 
and the first correspondingly increased, had there been in 
those days the system requiring the thorough physical 
examination of all college athletes which now obtains. 

There are several reasons for these great records of the 
good of rowing. In the first place, in few other forms of 
athletics is the action of the heart accelerated so gradually. 
In the four-mile contests the men are coached to conserve 
their energy in the beginning, so that they may distribute 
it throughout the long course, while in foot-ball and short 
running, for instance, the heart is pushed from the normal, 
slow beat of complete bodily quietude to the highest pos- 
sible rate by extremely sudden and violent exertion; and 
the pressure is as suddenly taken off. One of our most 
noted sprinters developed fainting periods after leaving 
college as a direct result of this. 

Also, the long training, gradually begun, slowly streng- 
thens the heart for the increased work. Furthermore, it 
entails a six months' period of enforced self-denial, ab- 
stemiousness, and clean living — and most of the coaches 
allow no alcohol whatever now. 

Happily all this occurs at just the age when the char- 
acter and life habits are being moulded, and it shows to the 
good in the after-college record of the great majority of 
university rowing-men. 

The injuries from accident or from strain in a well- 
trained crew are not to be compared with those of foot-ball 
or other sports, while the benefits are infinitely greater. 

In the enumeration and description of action of the 
muscles used in rowing in Exercise and Training, by C. H. 

388 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 

Ralfe, M.A., M.D., Cantab., F.R.C.P., he shows the 
great number of muscles used in this sport, how evenly 
the work is distributed over the body, and consequently 
the excellent general physical development this exercise 
brings. Much depends, however, on the style of rowing. 
A man who rows with a comparatively straight spine and 
with the shoulders back is undoubtedly much more bene- 
fited than he who handles his sweep with a bent back, the 
shoulders forward, and the chest contracted. 

Oarsmen should not stop rowing abruptly after leaving 
college, or after a series of years of club -boating; they 
should continue the exercise in a modified degree. Es- 
pecially is this true of those whose business is of a sedentary 
nature. Lungs which have been greatly developed by 
rowing or any other exercise should not suddenly be forced 
into comparative idleness, for the unused parts of such 
lungs are in danger of disease, especially the apices, which 
are behind the collar-bone on either side. These, when not 
often "aired out," so to speak, become vulnerable points for 
tubercular infection. Also athletes who suddenly stop 
exercise, and who are apt to become obese, often develop 
fatty heart. 

So, as you get on in years, don't stop exercising. Row 
if possible. If this is not convenient, brisk walking or 
any exercise accompanied by deep breathing, with the 
mouth closed, will keep the lungs in healthy condition 
and the tissues of the heart in good muscular tone and 
free from fat. 



APPENDIX 



DICTIONARY OF MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL TERMS 



This list has been extended to include many terms not directly mentioned 
in this book, in order to make clear subjects closely associated with the 
matters which are treated. 

Alternating Current. (See Cur- 
rent, Alternating.) 

Alternating Current-power. Elec- 
trical distribution employing the al- 
ternating current from dynamos or 
converters. 

Alternation. A change in the 
direction of a current; to and fro. 
Alternations may take place with 
a frequency ranging from 500 to 
10,000 or more vibrations per sec- 
ond. 

Alternator. An electric genera- 
tor-dynamo supplying an alternat- 
ing current. 

Amalgam. A combination of mer- 
cury with any other metal. 

Ampere. The practical unit of 
electric-current strength. It is the 
measure of the current produced by 
an electro-motive force of one volt 
through a resistance of one ohm. 

Ampere - currents. The currents 
theoretically assumed to be the cause 
of magnetism. 

Annealing. The process of soft- 
ening yellow rnetals by heating them 
to a cherry redness, then allowing 
them to cool gradually in the air. 

Electric annealing is done by pass- 
ing a current through the body to be 
annealed, and heating it to redness; 
then allowing it to cool gradually. 

Anode. The positive terminal in 



Acceleration. The rate of change 
in velocity. 

The increase or decrease of motion 
when acted upon by the electric cur- 
rent. 

Acid. A compound of hydrogen 
capable of uniting with a base to 
form salts. 

Sour, resembling vinegar. 

A sharp, biting fluid. 

Adherence. The attraction be- 
tween surfaces of iron due to electro- 
magnetic action. The term is used 
in connection with electric brakes — 
electro-magnetic adherence. 

Adjustment. Any change in an 
apparatus rendering it more efficient 
and correct in its work. 

Alive, or " Live." A term ap- 
plied to a wire or circuit that is 
charged with electricity. A "live" 
wire. 

Alligator. A form of wrench hav- 
ing two fixed jaws (one or both be- 
ing provided with teeth) for turning 
pipe or round rods. 

Alloy. Any mixture of two or 
more metals making a scientific com- 
pound. For example: copper and 
zinc to form brass; copper, tin, and 
zinc to form bronze; copper, nickel, 
and zinc to form German-silver. 



391 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



a broken, metallic, or true conduct- 
ing circuit. 

The terminal connected to the car- 
bon-plate of a battery, or to its 
equivalent in any other form of elec- 
tric generator, such as a dynamo or 
a voltaic pile. 

The copper, nickel, gold, or silver 
plates hung in an electro-plating 
bath, and from which the metal is 
supplied to fill the deficiency made 
by the electro-deposition of metal 
on the kathode or negative object 
in the bath. 

Arc. A term applied to an elec- 
tric current flowing from carbon to 
carbon, or from metals separated by 
a short gap, as in the arc street- 
lamps. 

The original arc was produced by 
two vertical rods, through which the 
current passed up and down. When 
not in action the upper ends touched, 
but as the current flowed the ends 
were separated, so that the current, 
passing up one carbon across the 
gap and down the other, formed the 
segment of a circle in jumping from 
one tip to the other. 

An arc of electric flame is of brill- 
iant and dazzling whiteness. The 
voltaic arc is the source of the most 
intense heat and light yet produced 
by man. The light is due principal- 
ly to the incandescence of the ends 
of carbon-pencils, when a current of 
sufficient strength is passing through 
them and jumping over the gap. 
Undoubtedly the transferred carbon 
particles have much to do with its 
formation. The conductivity of the 
intervening air and the intense heat- 
ing to which it is subjected, together 
with its coefficient of resistance, are 
other factors in the brilliant light 
produced. 

Armature. A body of iron or other 
material susceptible to magnetiza- 
tion, and which is placed on or near 
the poles of a magnet. 



That part of an electric mechan- 
ism which by magnetism is drawn 
to or repelled from a magnet. 

The core of a dynamo or motor 
which revolves within the field 
magnets, and which is the active 
principle in the generation of cur- 
rent by mechanical means, or in 
the distribution of power through 
electrical influence. Armatures are 
sometimes made of steel, and are 
permanent magnets. These are used 
in magneto-generators, telegraph in- 
struments, and other apparatus. 

Atmospheric Electricity. {See Elec- 
tricity, Atmospheric.) 

Attraction. The tendency to ap- 
proach and adhere or cohere which 
is shown in all forms of matter. It 
includes gravitation, cohesion, adhe- 
sion, chemical affinity, electro-mag- 
netic and dynamic attraction. 

Automatic Cut-out. An electro- 
magnetic switch introduced into a 
circuit, so as to break the circuit of 
the latter should it become over- 
loaded with current; it also acts in 
the event of a mechanical interrup- 
tion. 

Axle. A bar, or shaft, that sup- 
ports wheels or pulleys. It may be 
either fixed or movable. 

B 

Babbitt. A soft alloy of metals 
chiefly employed for bushings and 
bearings. 

Barometer. An apparatus for 
measuring the pressure exerted by 
the atmosphere. It consists of a 
glass tube 31 inches long, closed at 
one end, filled with mercury, and 
then inverted, with its open end 
immersed in a cistern of mercury. 
The column of mercury falls to a 
height proportional to the pressure 
of the atmosphere. At the sea- 
level it ranges from 30 to 31 inches. 

Batten. A strip of wood grooved 
longitudinally, in which electric 



392 



APPENDIX 



light or power wires are set. The 
grooved strip is screwed to the wall, 
the wires being laid in the grooves, 
and then covered with a thin wooden 
strip fastened on with small nails. 

Battery. A combination of parts, 
or elements, for the production of 
electrical action. 

A number of cells connected par- 
allel or in series for the generation 
of electricity. Under this heading 
there are at least one hundred dif- 
ferent kinds. Nowadays the dyna- 
mo is the cheap and efficient gen- 
erator of electricity. 

Battery Cell, Elements of. The 
plates of zinc and carbon, or of zinc 
and copper, in a cell are called ele- 
ments. The plate unattacked by the 
solution, such as the carbon or cop- 
per, is the negative element, while 
the one attacked and corroded by 
the electrolyte is the positive. 

Battery, Dry. A form of open 
circuit cell in which the electrolyte 
is made practically solid, so that the 
cell may be placed in any position. 
A zinc cup is filled with the electro- 
lyte and a carbon-rod placed in the 
middle, care being taken to avoid 
contact between cup and carbon at 
the bottom of the cell. The gelati- 
nous chemical mass is then packed 
in closely about the carbon, so as to 
nearly fill the cup. A capping of as- 
phaltum, wax, or other non-conduct- 
ing and sealing material is placed 
over the electrolyte, and this hardens 
about the carbon and around the top 
inner edge of the zinc cup. The lat- 
ter becomes the positive pole, the 
carbon the negative. Binding-posts, 
or connections, may be attached to 
the zinc and carbon to facilitate con- 
nections. 

Battery, Galvanic. The old name 
for a voltaic battery. 

Battery, Gravity. A battery in 
which the separation of fluids is ob- 
tained through their difference in 



specific gravity — for example, the 
bluestone cell. The sulphate of cop- 
per solution, being the more dense, 
goes to the bottom, while the zinc 
solution stays at the top. In its ac- 
tion the acid at the top corrodes 
the zinc, while at the bottom the so- 
lution is decomposed and deposits 
metallic copper on the thin copper 
plates. 

Battery, Leclanche. An open cir- 
cuit battery consisting of a jar, a 
porous cup, and the carbon and 
zinc elements, the electrolyte of 
which is a solution of ammonium 
chloride (sal-ammoniac). The car- 
bon plate is placed in the porous cup, 
and packed in with a mixture of 
powdered manganese binoxide and 
graphite, to serve as a depolarizer. 
A half-saturated solution of sal- 
ammoniac is placed in the outer jar, 
and a rod of zinc suspended in it. 
Another form of the battery is to 
omit the porous cup and use twice 
the bulk of carbon, both elements 
being suspended in the one solution 
of sal-ammoniac; this form of bat- 
tery is used for open-circuit work 
only, such as bells, buzzers, and an- 
nunciators. It is not adapted for 
lights, power, or plating purposes. 

Battery Mud. A deposit of mud- 
like character which forms at the 
bottom of gravity batteries, and 
which consists of metallic copper 
precipitated by the zinc. It only 
occurs where wasteful action has 
taken place. 

Battery, Plunge. A battery in a 
cabinet or frame, so arranged that 
the active plates can be removed 
or raised out of the solutions. This 
is usually accomplished by having 
the plates attached to a movable 
frame which, by means of a ratchet- 
shaft and chains, can be raised or 
lowered. Its object is to prevent 
the corrosion of the plates when not 
in use. 



26 



393 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Battery, Primary. A voltaic cell 
or battery generating electric energy 
by direct consumption of material. 
The ordinary voltaic cell, or gal- 
vanic battery, is a primary battery. 

Battery, Secondary. A storage- 
battery, an accumulator. 

Battery Solution. The active ex- 
citant liquid, or electrolyte, placed 
within a cell to corrode the positive 
element. Also called Electropoion. 

Bearing. The support, or rest, on 
which axles, shafts, and pinions turn. 
A journal-box. 

Becket. A fixture on the bottom 
of a pulley-block through which an 
end of rope is spliced. 

Bevel. Any inclination of two 
surfaces other than ninety degrees. 

Bevel Square. An adjustable in- 
strument for measuring angles. 

Bore. The inside diameter of a 
cylinder. 

Braze. To join by the use of 
hard solder and intense heat. 

Break. A point where an elec- 
tric conductor is broken, as by a 
switch or a cut-out. 

Buoy, Electric. A buoy to in- 
dicate dangerous channels in har- 
bors and to mark wrecks and reefs. 
It is provided with an electric light 
at night, and with a gong or an elec- 
tric horn by day. 

Burr. A small washer used prin- 
cipally with rivets. 

A roughness left on metal after 
casting or cutting. 

A roughening tool. 

Bushing. The box in a wcoden 
or metal wheel. 

A metal cylinder, or cone, fitted in- 
side a hole, in order to reduce its 
diameter. 

A threaded metal cylinder fitted 
in pipe connections. 

Buzzer. An electric alarm, or 
call, produced by the rapid vibra- 
tion of an armature acted upon by 
electro-magnetism. The sound is 



magnified by inclosing the mechan- 
ism in a resonant box. 

An apparatus resembling an elec- 
tric bell minus the bell and clapper. 
The buzzer is used in places where 
the loud ring of a bell would be a 
nuisance. 

C 

C. An abbreviation for centi- 
grade when speaking of thermal 
temperature. In chemistry the centi- 
grade scale is used extensively, but 
in air temperatures the Fahrenheit 
scale is universally employed. 

Caliper. An instrument for the 
measurement of diameters. 

Cam. A modified form of eccen- 
tric fixed upon a revolving shaft. 
It is used to convert rotary into 
reciprocating motion. 

Cant. Any inclination from the 
vertical or horizontal. A slope or 
set to one side. 

Capacity. A term used when 
speaking of the carrying power of a 
wire or circuit. The capacity of a 
wire, rod, bar, or other conductor 
is sufficient so long as the current 
does not heat it. Directly electric 
heat is generated, we speak of the 
conductor as being overloaded or 
having its capacity overtaxed. 

Carbon. One of the elements in 
graphitic form used as an electric- 
current conductor. It is the only 
substance which conducts electricity, 
and which cannot be melted with 
comparative ease by increase of 
current. It exists in three modi- 
fications — charcoal, graphite, and the 
diamond. In its graphitic form it 
is used as an electro-current con- 
ductor, as in batteries and arc-light 
electrodes, and as filaments in in- 
candescent lamps. In arc-lamp use 
the carbons are usually electro- 
plated on the outside with a film of 
copper which acts as a better con- 
ductor. 



394 



APPENDIX 



Cell, Standard. Meaning the same 
as battery. The vessel, including 
its contents, in which electricity is 
generated. 

Cell Storage. Two plates of 
metal, or compounds of metal, whose 
chemical relations are changed by 
the passage of an electric current 
from one plate to the other through 
an electrolyte in which they are im- 
mersed. 

Cements, Electrical. Cements of 
a non-conducting nature, such as 
marine glue and sticky compounds, 
used in electrical work. 

Centrifugal Force. A diametric 
revolving force which throws a 
body away from its axis of rotation. 
A merry-go-round is a simple ex- 
ample of this force. The more 
rapidly the platform revolves the 
greater the tendency for those on 
it to be thrown off and out from the 
center. The high velocity attained 
by the armatures in motors and 
dynamos would throw the wires out 
of place and cause them to rub 
against the surfaces of the field- 
magnets. Consequently, wire bands 
or binders are necessary to keep the 
coils of wire from spreading under 
the influence of the centrifugal force. 

Centripetal. Force, whose impul- 
sion is toward a center. 

Charge. The quantity of elec- 
tricity that is present on the surface 
of a body or conductor. 

The component chemical parts 
that are employed to excite the ele- 
ments of a cell in generating electric 
current. 

Channel-iron. Strip-iron turned 
up at both edges, so as to form a 
channel or trough. 

Chemical Change. When bodies 
unite so as to satisfy affinity, or to 
bring about the freeing of thermal or 
other energy, the union is usually 
accompanied by sensible heat or 
light. Sulphuric acid added to wa- 



ter produces heat; a match in burn- 
ing produces light. Another form 
of chemical change is decomposition 
or separation (the reverse of com- 
bination), such as takes place in the 
voltaic-battery, the electro-plating 
bath, and other forms of electrolysis. 
This is not accompanied by heat 
or light, but by the evolution of elec- 
tricity. 

Chock. A block, or wedge, used 
to prevent or limit motion. 

Circuit. A conducting-path for 
electric currents. Properly speak- 
ing, a complete circuit has the ends 
joined, and includes a source of cur- 
rent, an apparatus, and other ele- 
ments introduced in the path. When 
the circuit is complete it is called 
active. The term circuit is also 
applied to portions of a true circuit 
— as, an internal or external circuit. 

Circuit-breaker. Any apparatus 
for opening and closing a circuit, 
such as switches, automatic cut-outs, 
lightning-arresters, and the like. 

A ratchet-wheel engaged with a 
spring, or wire, which rests against 
the teeth. The current passes 
through the wire, the wheel, and axle. 
The wheel is revolved by a crank, 
and as the ratchets pass the spring, 
or wire, an instantaneous make- 
and-break occurs. The speed of 
the wheel regulates the frequency 
of the interruptions. 

Circuit, Open. A circuit in which 
a switch has been opened to pre- 
vent the continuous flow of current, 
such as an electric-bell circuit, which 
normally remains open, and which 
is active only when the push-button 
is pressed, thereby closing the circuit 
and operating the bell. An open- 
circuit battery is one that remains 
inactive when the circuit is open. 

Close Nipple. A threaded piece 
of pipe less than two inches in 
length. It is employed in water, 
steam, and gas pipe fittings. 



395 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Clutch. A device for coupling 
shafting. A friction-clutch is com- 
posed of metal arms and shoes 
which impinge upon a collar or rim 
on a revolving shaft or pulley, al- 
lowing the speed to be picked up 
gradually. 

Code, Cipher. A set of discon- 
nected words which, in accordance 
with a prearranged key, stand for 
whole sentences and phrases. Com- 
mercially the system is used as a 
short-cut — ten words perhaps mean- 
ing what otherwise it would take 
forty or fifty words to express. It is 
used extensively in telegraphy, both 
as an abbreviated message and as a 
means for securing secrecy. 

Coil. A strand of wire wound in 
circular form about a spool, a soft- 
iron core, or in layers, as a coil of 
rope. 

An electro-magnetic generator. 

A helix. (See also Induction, Re- 
sistance, Magnetizing.) 

Coil, Induction. A coil in which 
the electro-motive force of a portion 
of a circuit is, by induction, made 
to produce higher or lower electro- 
motive forces in an adjacent circuit, 
or in a circuit a part of which ad- 
joins the original circuit. There 
are three principal parts to all in- 
duction-coils — the core, the pri- 
mary coil, and the secondary coil. 
The core is a mass of soft iron, cast 
or wrought, but preferably divided 
— for example, a bundle of rods or 
bars. The primary coil of com- 
paratively larger wire is wound 
about this core, each layer being 
properly insulated and varnished, or 
coated with melted parafhne, to 
bind the wires. The secondary coil 
is of fine wire, and is wound about 
the primary coil. A great many 
turns of the fine wire are necessary, 
and care must be taken to properly 
insulate each layer and shellac the 
wires. The primary must be well 



insulated from the secondary coil, 
so as to prevent sparking, which 
would destroy the insulation. A 
make-and-break is operated by the 
primary coil, and is constructed 
upon the general form of an electric 
bell or buzzer movement. Extra 
currents which interfere with the 
action of an induction-coil are 
avoided by the use of a condenser. 
(See also Condenser.) The induction- 
coil produces a rapid succession of 
sparks which may spring across a 
gap of thirty or forty inches, accord- 
ing to the size of the coil. Induction- 
coils are used extensively in electric 
work, especially in .telephone trans- 
mitters, wireless telegraphy, electric 
welding, and in the alternating-cur- 
rent system. 

Compass. An apparatus for in- 
dicating the directive force of the 
earth upon the magnetic needle. 
It consists of a case covered with 
glass, in which a magnetized needle, 
normally pointing to the north, is 
balanced on a point at the center. 
Under the needle a card is arranged 
on which the degrees or points of the 
compass are inscribed. A valuable 
instrument in electrical work, mag- 
netism, etc. 

In mechanics an instrument con- 
sisting of two legs joined at the top. 
It is used for marking and measuring, 
and for describing circles. 

Compass, Mariners'. A compass 
in which the needle is attached to a 
card that rotates in pointing to the 
north. A mark, called the "lub- 
ber's mark," is made upon the case, 
and this is in line with the ship's 
keel, so that a glance at the card 
will indicate the direction in which 
the ship is headed. 

Concentric. Having a common 
center. Spheres or circles are con- 
centric. 

Condenser. An apparatus sepa- 
rate from the cylinder, in which the 



396 



APPENDIX 



exhaust steam is condensed by the 
action of cold water or air. 

Conductance. The conducting 
power of a mass of material, vary- 
ing according to its shape and di- 
mensions. The cylindrical or round 
conductor is the best type for the 
conveyance of electric currents. 

Conductor. Anything which per- 
mits the passage of electric current. 
The term conductor is a relative one, 
and, excepting a vacuum, there is 
probably no substance that has not 
some conductive power. Metals, be- 
ginning with silver, are the best 
conductors, liquids next, glass the 
worst. The ether, or air, is a con- 
ductor of sound and electric vi- 
bratory disturbances, but not in 
the same sense as the ground. The 
air conducts frictional electricity, 
while the ground acts as a conductor 
for the galvanic current, or "cur- 
rent electricity." By this last term 
is meant electricity which flows con- 
tinually, instead of discharging all 
at once with an accompanying 
spark or flash. 

Connect. The act of bringing two 
ends of wire together, either tem- 
porarily or permanently. Bringing 
one end of a conductor into contact 
with another so as to establish an 
electric connection. 

Contact. The electrical union of 
two conductors, whether temporary 
or permanent. It may be established 
by touching the ends or terminals 
of a circuit through the agency of a 
push-button, a telegraph-key, an elec- 
tric switch, etc. 

Controller. The lever or handle 
on the switch-board of a resistance- 
coil, by means of which electric 
current is let or in kept out of a cir- 
cuit. 

Cotter-pin. A wedge-shaped piece 
of metal used for fastening together 
parts of a machine or for securing a 
nut against working off. 



Counter-shaft. An intermediate 
shaft that receives power from a 
main line and transmits it to a 
machine. 

Countersink. To form (by drill- 
ing, turning, or chiseling) a depres- 
sion for the head of a screw or bolt. 

A tool with beveled cutting edges. 

Couple. The combination of two 
electrodes and a liquid, the elec- 
trodes being immersed in the latter, 
and being acted on differentially by 
the liquid. This combination con- 
stitutes a source of electro-motive 
force, and, consequently, of current, 
and is called the galvanic or voltaic 
cell or battery. 

Crank. The bent portion of a 
shaft, or axle, or an arm keyed at 
right angles to the end of a shaft. 
It is used for converting rotary into 
reciprocating motion, or vice versa. 

Crank-pin. The cylindrical piece 
that forms the handle, or to which 
the connecting-rod is attached, at 
the end of a crank, or between the 
arms of a double crank. 

Creeping. A phenomenon met with 
in solution batteries. The electro- 
lyte creeps up the sides of the con- 
taining jar and evaporates, leaving 
a deposit of salts. Still more solu- 
tion creeps up through the salts until 
it gets clear to the top and runs over. 
To prevent this the tops of the jars 
should be brushed with hot paraffine 
for a distance of two inches from the 
upper edge. The salts will not 
form on paraffine. Oil is sometimes 
poured on the top of the battery 
solution, but this affects the ele- 
ments if it touches them, and makes 
their surfaces non-conducting. 

Current, Alternating. A current 
flowing alternately in opposite di- 
rections. It is a succession of cur- 
rents, each of short duration and of 
direction opposite to that of its pre- 
decessor. Abbreviation, A-C. 

Current, Constant. An unvary- 



397 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



ing current. A constant-current sys- 
tem is one in which the current is 
uniformly maintained — for example, 
in electric light, power, and heat 
plants. 

Current, Continuous. A current 
of one direction only, or the reverse 
of an alternating current. 

Current, Make-and-break. A cur- 
rent which is continually broken or 
interrupted and started again. The 
term is applied only where the in- 
terruptions occur in rapid succes- 
sion, as in the action of an induc- 
tion-coil or pole-changer. 

The alternating current. 

Current, Oscillating. A current 
periodically alternating. 

Current - reverser. A switch or 
other contrivance for reversing the 
direction of a current in a conductor. 

Currents, Positive. {See Positive 
Currents.) 

Cut-in. To electrically connect a 
piece of mechanism or a conductor 
with a circuit. 

Cut-out. The reverse of the cut- 
in. To remove from a circuit any 
conducting device. The cut-out 
may be so arranged as to leave the 
circuit complete in some other way. 

An appliance for removing a piece 
of apparatus from a circuit so that 
no more current shall pass through 
the former. 

Cut-out, Automatic. A safety de- 
vice for automatically cutting out 
a circuit to prevent accident or 
the burning-out of an apparatus, 
due to an overload of current. It 
is worked by an electro-magnet and 
spring. An overload of current 
causes a magnet of high resistance 
to draw an armature toward it, 
and this, in turn, releases the spring 
of the cut-out device. Sometimes 
a strip or wire of fusible metal is 
employed which is in circuit with 
a switch. The excess of current 
fuses the metal, and the broken cir- 



cuit releases a spring-jack, which, in 
turn, breaks the circuit. 



Dead-point or Center. Either of 
two points in the orbit of a crank 
at which the crank-axle, crank-pin, 
and connecting-rod lie in a straight 
line. 

Deflection. In magnetism, the 
movement of the needle out of the 
plane. It is due to disturbance, or 
to the needle's attraction toward 
a mass of iron or steel or another 
magnet. 

Density, Electric. The relative 
quantity of electricity, as a charge, 
upon a unit area of surface. It may 
be positive or negative. 

Surface density, as the charge of 
a Leyden-jar. 

Deposit, Electrolytic. The metal 
or other substances precipitated by 
the action of a battery or other cur- 
rent-generator, as in the plating 
processes. 

Die. A metal block, or plate (of- 
ten one of a pair), used for shaping, 
impressing, or cutting objects. A 
tool for cutting external threads on 
nuts, couplings, or pipe-fittings. 

Dielectric. Any substance through 
which electrostatic induction is al- 
lowed to occur, such as glass or rub- 
ber. It is a non-conductor for all 
electric currents. 

Differential Gearing. A train of 
toothed wheels (usually an epicyclic 
train) so arranged as to constitute a 
differential motion. 

Discharge. The eruptive discharge 
from a Leyden-jar or accumulator 
of a volume of electricity stored with- 
in it. 

The abstraction of a charge from 
a conductor by connecting it to the 
earth or to another conductor. 

Disconnect. To break an electric 
circuit or open it so as to stop the 



398 



APPENDIX 



flow of current; to remove a part 
of a circuit or a piece of apparatus 
from a circuit. 

Disk. A fiat circular plate. 

Dowel. A pin of wood or metal 
fitting into holes in the abutting 
portions of two pieces. Being part- 
ly in one piece and partly in the 
other, the dowel serves to hold the 
pieces in their proper relative position. 

Dynamic Electricity. Electricity 
in motion or flowing, as distinguished 
from static or frictional electricity. 

Electricity of relatively low po- 
tention or electro-motive force in 
large quantity or amperage. 

Dynamo. An apparatus con- 
sisting of a core and field-magnets, 
properly wound with insulated wire, 
which, when put into operation by 
revolving the core or armature at 
high speed, develops electric current; 
a mechanical generator of electricity. 



E 

Eccentric. A disk, or wheel, so 
arranged upon a shaft that the 
center of the disk and that of the 
shaft do not coincide. Used for 
operating valves in steam-engines. 
The motion is that of a crank. 

Efflorescence. The dry salts on a 
jar or vessel containing liquid that 
collects above the water or evapora- 
tion line. This is due to creeping. 

Ejector. A jet-pump for expel- 
ling water from boilers, vats, or 
tanks. 

Elasticity. A property in some 
bodies and forces through which they 
recover their former figure, shape, 
or dimensions when the external 
pressure or stress is removed. Water 
has no elasticity. Air is very elas- 
tic; steam has a great volume of 
elasticity; while electricity is un- 
doubtedly the most elastic of all in 
its motion through air, water, and 
other conducting mediums. 



Elbow. A short, angular pipe- 
fitting in the shape of an L. Used 
in joining pipes. 

Electric. Pertaining to electric- 
ity; anything connected with the 
use of electricity. It has been a 
much-abused word, and its meaning 
has been garbled by the impostor, 
the crook, and the "business thief" 
in foisting on the public wares in 
which there was no electrical prop- 
erty whatever. "Electric" tooth- 
brushes, combs, corsets, belts, and 
the like may contain a few bits of 
magnetized steel, but they possess 
no active therapeutic value. 

Electricity. One of the hidden 
and mysterious powers of nature, 
which man has brought under con- 
trol to serve his ends, and which 
manifests itself mainly through at- 
traction and repulsion; the most 
powerful and yet the most docile 
force known to man, coming from 
nowhere and without form, weight, 
or color, invisible and inaudible; 
an energy which fills the universe 
and which is the active principle 
in heat, light, magnetism, chemical 
affinity, and mechanical motion. 

Electricity, Atmospheric. The 
electric currents of the atmosphere, 
variable but never absent. They 
include lightning, frictional electric- 
ity, the Aurora Borealis, the electric 
waves used in wireless telegraphy, 
etc. Benjamin Franklin indicated 
the method of drawing electricity 
from the clouds. In June, 1752, he 
flew a kite, and by its moistened 
cord drew an electric current from 
the clouds so that sparks were visible 
on a brass key at the ground end of 
the cord. Later, when a fine wire 
was substituted for the cord, and a 
kite was flown in a thunder-storm, 
the electric spark was vivid. This 
experiment confirmed his hypothesis 
that lightning was identical with the 
disruptive discharges of electricity. 



399 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



Electricity, Voltaic. Electricity 
of low potential difference and large 
current intensity. 

Electricity produced by a voltaic 
battery or dynamo as opposed to 
static electricity, which is frictional 
and practically uncontrollable for 
commercial purposes. 

Electrolysis. The separation of a 
chemical compound into its con- 
stituent parts by the action of an 
electric current. 

Epicycle. A circle which rolls on 
the circumference of another circle, 
either externally or internally. 

Exhaust. Pertaining to air, gas, 
or steam that is released from the 
cylinder of an engine after perform- 
ing its work. 

Exhaust Draught. A forced 
draught produced by drawing air 
through a furnace or fire-box in- 
stead of forcing it in. 

Exhaust-pipe. The pipe that con- 
veys the expended steam from the 
cylinder to the atmosphere or to 
the condenser. 

Exhaust-port. The opening in 
the cylinder, or valve, by which the 
used steam escapes. 



F. The sign commonly employed 
to designate Fahrenheit. Thus, 30 
F. means 30 degrees Fahrenheit, or 
30 degrees above zero. 

Flange. A plate with a rim that 
fits on a pipe end. 

A projecting edge on a wheel. Its 
use is to hold the latter in position, 
as on a metal track. 

Flexible Shaft. A shaft made of 
two spirals usually running in op- 
posite directions, and revolving with- 
in a sheath, or case, the latter 
being well lubricated to prevent fric- 
tion. 

Flow. The volume of a current 
or stream escaping through a con- 



ductor, such .as a wire, rod, or 
pipe. 

Force. Any change in the con- 
dition of matter with respect to 
motion or rest. Force is measured 
by the acceleration or change of 
motion that it can impart to a body 
of a unit mass in a unit of time. For 
instance, ten pounds pressure of 
steam will be indicated on a gauge 
made for measuring steam. That 
pressure of steam, with the proper 
volume behind it, is capable of in- 
stantly producing a given part of a 
horse-power. In the same way ten 
volts of electro-motive force is capa- 
ble of pushing a current so as to ex- 
ert a certain friction of horse-power. 

Force, Electro-magnetic. The 
force of attraction or repulsion ex- 
erted by the electro-magnet. It is 
also known as electric force in the 
electro-magnetic system. 

Fulcrum. The support on or 
against which a lever rests. 

Full Load. A complete load. 
The greatest load a machine or 
secondary battery will carry per- 
manently. The full capacity of a 
motor running at its registered 
speed for its horse-power. 

Fuse, Electric. A fuse for ignit- 
ing an explosive charge by elec- 
tricity. It is made by bringing the 
terminals or ends of wires close to- 
gether, so that they will spark 
when a current passes through them. 
Or a thin piece of highly resistant 
wire may be embedded in an ex- 
plosive and brought to white heat 
by current. 

Fuse-block. An insulator having 
a safety-fuse made fast to it. 

Fuse-box. A box containing a 
safety-fuse, generally of porcelain, 
enameled iron, or some other non- 
conductor. 

Fuse-links. Links composed of 
strips or plates of fusible metal 
serving the purpose of safety-fuses. 



400 



APPENDIX 



Galvanic. Voltaic. Relating to 
current electricity or the electro- 
chemical relations of metals. 

Galvanometer. An instrument for 
measuring current strength. 

A magnetic needle influenced by 
the passage of a current through a 
wire or coil located near it. 

Gate-valve. A valve whose en- 
trance is arranged to close with a 
gate, operated by a lever or screw, 
and through which fluids or gases 
can pass in a straight line. 

Gear. Moving mechanical parts 
provided with teeth or sprockets 
which engage one another for the 
transmission of « power. When a 
change in direction is desired a 
beveled gear is used. 

Generator. An apparatus for main- 
taining an electric current, such as 
a dynamo, a Faradic machine, a bat- 
tery, etc. 

Gland. A stuffing-box through 
which a piston-rod can pass without 
the escape of steam, water, or gases. 

Globe-valve. A valve with a 
round or spherical body, through 
which steam is admitted when the 
plug is removed from the seat. 

Gutta-percha. Caoutchouc treat- 
ed with sulphur to harden it; some- 
times called vulcanized rubber or 
vulcanite. It is a product obtained 
from tropical trees, and when prop- 
erly treated it is a valuable insulator 
in electrical work, particularly in sub- 
marine cables, since it offers great 
resistance to the destructive agencies 
of the ocean's depths. 

H 

Hand-hole. A small orifice in a 
boiler through which the hand may 
be passed in order to make minor 
repairs and adjustments. 

Heat. One of the force agents of 



nature. It is recognized in its effects 
through expansion, fusion, evapora- 
tion, and generation of energy. 

Horse-power, Electric. Meaning 
the same as in mechanics. Referred 
to when speaking of the working 
capacity of a motor or the power 
required to drive a dynamo. 

Hydrometer. An instrument em- 
ployed to determine the amount of 
moisture in the atmosphere. 

An instrument for determining 
through flotation the density or 
specific gravity of liquids and fluids. 
It consists of a weighted glass bulb 
or hollow metallic cylinder with a 
long stem on which the Baume 
scale is marked. Dropping it into 
a liquid it floats in a vertical posi- 
tion, and sinks to a level consistent 
with the gravity of the fluid. , 



Igniter. A mechanical hand ap- 
paratus, in which a battery, induc- 
tion-coil, and vibrator are located, 
and whose spark, jumping across a 
gap at the end of a rod, ignites or 
lights a gas flame, blasting-powder, 
or dynamite. 

I-H-P. An abbreviation for in- 
dicated horse-power. 

Impulse. The motion produced 
by the sudden or momentary action 
of a force upon a body. An electro- 
magnetic impulse is the action pro- 
duced by the electro-magnetic waves 
in magnetizing a mass of soft iron 
and attracting to it another mass 
of iron or steel. 

Injector. An apparatus by which 
steam or any gas under pressure is 
made to carry with it a current of 
another fluid, such as water, oil, 
or air, and deliver the latter in a 
stream of reduced diameter against 
the original pressure. 

Installation. The entire appara- 
tus, building, and appurtenances of 



401 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



a technical or manufacturing plant 
or power-house. An electric -light 
installation would mean the machin- 
ery, street-lines, lamps, etc. 

Insulation. The dielectric or non- 
conducting materials which are used 
to prevent the leakage of electricity. 
The covering for magnet wires, and 
overhead conduits for power lines 
and electric lighting. 

Insulator Varnish. A varnish 
composed of insulating material, 
such as gums, shellac, or diluted rub- 
ber. Shellac dissolved in alcohol is 
perhaps the best. It is easy to 
make and dries quickly, making an 
insulating surface practical for al- 
most every ordinary use. 

Intensity. The intensity or 
strength of a current is its amper- 
age. The strength of a magnetic 
field, its power to attract or mag- 
netize. 



Joint. The point where two or 
more electric conductors join. 

Journals. The boxes or bearings 
in which axles or spindles revolve. 

Jumper. A short circuit-shunt 
employed temporarily around an 
apparatus, lamp, or motor to cut 
out the current. 

Jump-spark. A disruptive spark 
excited between two conducting sur- 
faces in distinction from a spark ex- 
cited by a rubbing contact. 



Kathode. The terminal of an elec- 
tric circuit whence an electrolyz- 
ing current passes from a solution. 
It is the terminal connected to the 
zinc pole of a battery or the article 
on which the electro-deposit is made. 

Key. A pin, or wedge, used to 
secure a crank, pulley, or coupling 
upon a shaft. It is usually embed- 
ded partly in the shaft and partly 



in the crank or wheel — or it may 
lock through friction alone. 

Keyway. A channel cut in a shaft 
or hub in which a key is placed to 
lock two parts of machinery together. 



Lag-screw. A heavy screw with a 
square, octagon, or hexagonal head, 
and which can be turned with a 
wrench. 

Level. An instrument for ascer- 
taining horizontal planes or lines. 

Leyden-jar. A type of static con- 
denser. Its usual form is a glass 
jar. Tin-foil is pasted about its 
inner and outer surfaces covering 
about half the wall. The balance 
of the glass is painted with shellac 
or insulating varnish. The mouth 
is closed with a cork stopper, and 
through its center a brass rod is 
passed which, by a short chain, is 
connected with the interior coating 
of the jar. The top of the rod is pro- 
vided with a brass knob or ball, and 
from this last the spark is drawn. 

Lightning. The electro-static dis- 
charge of clouds floating in the at- 
mosphere. It is the highest form 
of frictional electricity, uncontrol- 
lable and very dangerous, since the 
strength of a single flash may run 
into hundreds of thousands of volts. 

Litharge. Yellow-lead. A chemi- 
cal form of metallic lead. 

Local Action. In a battery, the 
loss of current due to impurities in 
the zinc. The currents may circu- 
late in exceedingly minute circles, 
but they waste zinc and chemicals 
and contribute nothing to the effi- 
ciency of the battery. 

In a dynamo, the loss of energy 
through the formation of eddy cur- 
rents in its core or armature, in the 
pole pieces, or in other conducting 
bodies. 



402 



APPENDIX 



M 



Magnet, Field. The electro or 
permanent magnet in a dynamo or 
motor, used to produce the area of 
electric energy. 

Magnet, Horseshoe. A magnet 
of U shape with the poles or ends 
brought closer together than the 
other parts of the limbs. A soft 
iron bar is placed across the poles 
when not in use, as this serves to 
conserve the magnetism. 

Make and Break, Automatic. An 
apparatus which enables the arma- 
ture of a magnet to make and break 
its circuit automatically. 

Muffler. A metallic box having 
perforated disks or cylinders. Used 
to deaden the noise of exhaust 
steam or gases. 

A cylindrical case having disk 
diaphragms and filled with asbestos. 
Used to deaden sound and to pre- 
vent fire escaping from the exhaust- 
pipes of gas-engines. 



N 



Needle. A term applied to a bar- 
magnet poised horizontally upon a 
vertical point. 

A magnetic needle, or the magnet 
in a mariners' compass. 

Negative. Opposed to positive. 

Negative Electricity. The kind of 
electricity with which a piece of am- 
ber is charged by friction with flannel. 

'In a galvanic battery or cell the 
surface of the zinc is charged with 
negative electricity. Negative elec- 
tricity, according to the theory of 
some scientists, really means a de- 
ficiency of electricity. 

Negative Element. The plate not 
dissolved by the solution in a vol- 
taic cell; the one which is positively 
charged. 

The carbon, platinum, or copper 
plate or pole in a battery. 



Non-conductor. A material or 
substance offering very high resist- 
ance to the passage of the electric 
current. 

North Pole. The north-seeking 
pole of a magnet. 

The pole of a magnet which tends 
to point to the north, and whence 
lines of force are assumed to issue 
on their course to the other pole of 
the magnet. 

Nut. A small block of metal hav- 
ing an internal screw thread, which 
engages a similar thread on a bolt, 
pipe, or tube. 



Offset. An abrupt bend in an 
object (such as a rod) by which 
one part is turned aside out of line 
but nearly parallel with the rest. 
The part thus bent aside. 

Ohm. The practical unit of re- 
sistance. A legal ohm is the re- 
sistance of a column of mercury one 
square millimeter in cross-sectional 
area and 106.24 centimeters in 
length. 

Ohm, True. The true ohm is the 
resistance of a column of mercury 
106.24 centimeters long and one 
square millimeter in cross-sectional 
area. An ohm may be measured by 
a No. 30 copper wire nine feet and 
nine inches long. If larger size wire 
is used the piece must be proportion- 
ately longer, since the resistance is 
less. 



Periphery. The outer surface or 
circumference. 

The distance around. 

Pinion. A cog-wheel with a small 
number of teeth or leaves adapted to 
engage with a larger wheel or rack. 

Piston. A disk attached to a rod 
and fitting closely in the bore of a 
cylinder. The piston receives the 
pressure of the steam or expanding 



403 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



gas, and by its reciprocal motion 
communicates power to the crank- 
shaft. 

Pitman. A rod that connects a 
rotary with a reciprocating part. A 
connecting-rod usually working in a 
vertical position. 

Pivot - bearing. A conical-shaped 
bearing turning on a plate or a col- 
lar of steel balls to reduce friction. 

Plug. A piece of metal, with a 
handle, used to make electric con- 
nections by being inserted between 
two slightly separated plates or 
blocks of metal. 

A wedge of metal, slightly tapered, 
and used to thrust between two 
conductors to close or complete a 
circuit. 

Polarity, Electric. The disposi- 
tion in a paramagnetic body to be 
influenced by electric waves and 
lines of force. The otherwise non- 
magnetic body or mass becomes 
magnetic to attract or repulse when 
influenced by electricity, but ceases 
to retain the phenomena after the 
electric influence is removed. A 
piece of soft-iron wire, a nail, or a 
short rod of iron will become electro- 
polarized when a current of elec- 
tricity is sent through a coil of in- 
sulated wire so wound that one end 
will be N, the other S. So soon as 
the circuit is broken the polarity 
ceases. 

Polarization. The depriving of a 
voltaic cell of it's proper electro- 
motive force. This may be brought 
about through the solution becoming 
spent, or in the event of the acid 
being saturated with zinc, and so 
failing to act on the metallic zinc. 

Counter electro-motive force due 
to the accumulation of hydrogen on 
the negative plate. 

Poles. The terminals of an open 
electric circuit at which there neces- 
sarily exists a potential difference. 

The terminals of an open magnetic 



circuit, or the ends of a magnetized 
mass of iron. 

Porous Cup or Cell. A cup or 
cell made of pipe-clay or of un- 
glazed earthenware through which 
a current of electricity can pass 
when wet or in a liquid. Porous 
cups are used in cells and batteries 
to keep two liquids apart, and yet 
permit electrolysis and electrolytic 
conduction. 

Positive Currents. Currents which 
deflect the needle to the left. 

Positive Electricity. The current 
that flows from the active element, 
the zinc in a battery, to the carbon. 
The negative electricity flows from 
the carbon to the zinc. 

Positive Electrode. The electrode 
which is connected with the positive 
pole of a source of electric energy. 

Positive Pole. The N pole in a 
magnet or magnetic needle. So 
called because it seeks the north 
or negative pole of the earth. 

Positive Wire, or Conductor. The 
wire, or conductor, connected with 
the positive pole of any apparatus 
which produces electro-motive force. 



Quantity, Electro-magnetic. The 

electro-magnetic current measured 
by its intensity for a second of time. 
Quick-break. A break affected in 
an electric current by the employ- 
ment of a quick-break switch. 



Ratchet. A wheel bearing teeth 
on its periphery to engage with a 
pawl, thereby preventing backward 
motion. 

Reciprocating. Motion to and fro 
or alternating. 

Resistance. That quality of an 
electric conductor in virtue of which 
it opposes the passage of an electric 



404 



APPENDIX 



current, causing the disappearance 
or modification of electro-motive 
force, and converting electric energy 
into heat energy. 

Resistance, Electrolytic. The re- 
sistance of an electrolyte to the pas- 
sage of a current decomposing it. It 
is almost entirely due to electrolysis, 
and is intensified by counterelectro- 
motive force. When a current of a 
voltage so low as not to decompose 
an electrolyte is passed through 
the latter, the resistance appears 
very high and sometimes almost in- 
finite. If the voltage is increased 
until the electrolyte is decomposed 
the resistance suddenly drops to a 
point lower than the true resistance. 

Resistance, Internal. The resist- 
ance of a battery or generator in 
an electric circuit, as distinguished 
from the resistance of the rest of 
the circuit. 



Safety Fuse. A device to prevent 
overheating of any portion of a cir- 
cuit by excessive current. It gen- 
erally consists of a strip of fusible 
metal which, if the current attains 
too great strength, melts and opens 
the circuit. 

Salt. A chemical compound con- 
taining two atoms or radicals which 
saturate each other. One is electro- 
positive, the other electro-negative. 

Salts are decomposed by electrol- 
ysis, and in separating they combine 
to form new molecules. 

Saturated. A liquid is said to be 
saturated when it has dissolved all 
the salts it will take up. 

Series. Arranged in succession. 
When incandescent lamps are in- 
stalled so that the current goes in 
and out of one lamp, and so on to 
the next and the succeeding ones, 
they are said to be arranged in 
series. It takes high E-M-F and 



current, or amperage, to operate 
such lamps. 

Series batteries are arranged with 
the zinc pole of one connected to the 
carbon pole of the next. 

Shackle. A ring, clasp, brace, or 
fastening to hold parts together. 

Shellac. A resin gum, gathered 
from certain Asiatic trees. It is 
soluble in alcohol, and is used ex- 
tensively in electric work as an 
insulator. 

Shroud. A chain or brace used 
to guy or stay. 

A band of metal encircling any- 
thing to hold it in place or together. 

Siphon. A pipe or tube bent into 
two branches and used for drawing 
liquids from one level to a lower 
level over an intermediate eleva- 
tion. 

Snatch-block. A pulley-block with 
one side partly open, so that a 
rope can be passed in and over the 
pulley without the necessity of reev- 
ing it in from one end. 

Solution. A fluid composed of 
dissolved salts; a mixture of liquids 
and fluids. 

Spark-coil. A coil for producing 
a spark from a source of compara- 
tively low electro-motive force. The 
induction-coil is an example. 

Spark, Electric. The phenome- 
non observed when a disruptive 
charge leaves an accumulator or in- 
duction-coil and passes through an 
air gap. 

Spark-gap. The space left be- 
tween the ends of an electric reso- 
nator across which the spark springs. 

Sparking. The production of 
sparks at the commutator, between 
the bars and the brushes of dynamos 
and motors. They are minute vol- 
taic arcs, and should not be allowed 
to occur, as they cut away the metal 
and score the surface of the com- 
mutator. 

Specific Gravity. The relative 



405 



BOATING BOOK FOR BOYS 



weight or density of a body as com- 
pared with a standard. Water is 
usually taken as a standard for 
solids and liquids, and air for gases. 

Spent Acid. Acid which has be- 
come exhausted. In a battery the 
acid becomes spent from combina- 
tion with zinc; it also loses its de- 
polarizing power. 

Spring - contact. A spring con- 
nected to one lead of an electric 
circuit. It is arranged to press 
against another spring or contact, 
which it opens or closes by the in- 
troduction of a plug or wedge. 

Steam-separator. A mechanical 
device for separating heavy and 
light steam. The heavy steam falls 
from the baffle-plate and condenses 
while the lighter passes on to the engine. 

Steam-trap. An apparatus de- 
signed to catch the water from con- 
densing steam and return it to the 
boiler before it has time to enter the 
cylinder. 

Stoke. To supply with fuel, as to 
stoke a fire. 

Strength of Current. Amperage; 
the quantity of current in a circuit. 

Stroke. In an engine or motor 
the stroke is one of a series of re- 
curring movements in which the 
connection-rod is carried to and fro for 
its full swing by the crank or eccentric. 

Stuffing-box. A mechanical con- 
trivance to hold the packing about 
piston-rods or eccentrics, thereby 
preventing . the escape of steam, wa- 
ter, or gases. 

Switch. A device for opening 
and closing an electric circuit. Made 
in a great variety of forms, such 
as push-button, telegraph-key, knife 
switch, automatic switch, lever switch, 
rheostat, etc. 



Tape, Insulating. Prepared tape 
used in covering the bared ends of 
wires or joints. 



Throttle. To obstruct or shut off. 

A damper or valve employed to 
regulate the flow of steam, gas, or 
fluid through a pipe. 

Throw. The travel or extent of 
reciprocating motion in a crank or 
eccentric. 

Turbine. A rotating wheel or 
cylinder propelled by water or steam 
and designed for the purpose of de- 
veloping power. 

A windmill of the modern feather- 
blade type. 

U 

Unit. The single standard of 
force, light, heat, magnetism, attrac- 
tion, repulsion, resistance, etc. 

Universal Joint. A joint that 
permits both connected parts to be 
turned in any direction. 

A coupling for connecting two 
shafts so as to permit of angular 
motion in nearly all directions. 



Vacuum. A space from which 
the air has been exhausted to a 
very high degree. In the theoreti- 
cal vacuum the exhaustion is sup- 
posed to be perfect. 

Valve. A gate or ball contriv- 
ance which opens and closes a pas- 
sage and so controls the flow or 
supply of gases and liquids. 

Vibrator, Electro-magnetic. The 
make-and-break mechanism used on 
induction-coils, or other similar ap- 
paratus, in which, through alternate 
attractions, an arm or spring is kept 
in motion. 

Volt. The practical unit of elec- 
tro-motive force; the volume and 
pressure of an electric current. 

Voltage. Electric-motive force ex- 
pressed in volts — as, a voltage of 
ioo volts. 

Vulcanite. Vulcanized rubber. 
Valuable for its insulating properties 
and inductive capability. 



406 



APPENDIX 



w 



Watt. The practical unit of elec- 
trical activity; the rate of work or 
rate of energy. It is a unit of en- 
ergy or of work represented by a 
current of one ampere urged on by 
one volt of electro-motive force. 

The volt-ampere. 

The standard of electrical power 
or work. It takes 746 electric watts 
to equal one horse-power. 

Winch. A small windlass fixed 
on a truck or the mast of a crane. 
It is usually provided with one or 
two cranks and handles. A winch 
is sometimes rigged to be operated 
by steam-power. 

Windlass. A horizontal drum 
upon which a rope winds for hoist- 
ing objects. 

Wire, Flexible. A cord of fine 
wire strands laid together and in- 
sulated so that it may be easily 
bent or wrapped. 

Wiring. Installing wires so as to 



form a circuit for the conveyance of 
current for light, heat, and power. 

Withe. A band made of iron for 
binding, as the withes on the spars 
and masts of a ship. 



Yoke. A joining or connecting 
piece, such as a clip, a tie-beam, or a 
strap. 

In electrical work, a piece of soft 
iron which connects the ends of two 
portions of a core on which wire 
coils are wound. It is located at 
the ends farthest from the poles. 

The soft-iron bar placed across 
the ends of a horseshoe magnet to 
retain its magnetism. 



Zinc-battery. A battery which 
decomposes zinc in an electrolyte, 
thereby producing a current. 

Zinc Currents. Negative currents. 



THE END 



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